Brain derived neurotrophic factor

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to nucleic acid sequences encoding brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), as well as BDNF protein produced in quantity using these nucleic acid sequences, as well as fragments and derivatives thereof. In addition, the invention relates to pharmacologic compositions and therapeutic uses of BDNF, having provided, for the first time, the means to generate sufficient quantities of substantially pure BDNF for clinical use. In a specific embodiment, BDNF may be used to promote the survival of substantia nigra dopaminergic neurons and basal forebrain cholinergic neurons, thereby providing a method for treating, respectively, Parkinson&#39;s disease and Alzheimer&#39;s disease. The invention also relates to antibodies directed toward BDNF or fragments thereof, having provided a method for generating sufficient immunogen. Further, by permitting a comparison of the nucleic acid sequences of BDNF and NGF, the present invention provides for the identification of homologous regions of nucleic acid sequence between BDNF and NGF, thereby defining a BDNF/NGF gene family; the invention provides a method for identifying and isolating additional members of this gene family.

This application is a continuation-in-part of copending application Ser.No. 07/400,591, filed Aug. 30, 1989, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,180,820 whichis incorporated by reference herein in it entirety.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction

2. Background of the Invention

2.1 Neuronal Cell Death And The Role Of Neurotrophic Factors In The

2.2. Development Of The Nervous System

2.3. Nerve Growth Factor

2.3. Other Neurotrophic Factors

2.3.1. Comparison Of A Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) AndNerve Growth Factor

2.3.2. Neuronal Targets of Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor

3. Summary of the Invention

3.1. Abbreviations And Definitions

4. Description of the Figures

5. Detailed Description of the Invention

5.1. Purification of Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor

5.2. Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor Bioassays

5.3. Microsequencing Of Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor Protein

5.4. Cloning Of Brain Derived Factor-Encoding DNA

5.5. Expression Of The Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor Gene

5.5.1 Identification And Purification Of The Expressed Gene Product

5.6. Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor Genes And Proteins

5.7. Generation Of Anti-Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor Antibodies

5.8. Identification Of Additional Members Of The BDNF/NGF Gene Family

5.9. Utility Of The Invention

5.9.1. Diagnostic Applications

5.9.2. Therapeutic Applications

5.10. Pharmaceutical Compositions

6. Example: Molecular Cloning and Characterization of Porcine BrainDerived Neurotrophic Factor cDNA

6.1. Materials And Methods

6 1.1. Purification of BDNF From Porcine Brain

6 1 2. Protein Sequencing

6.1.3. Preparation Of DNA Templates

6.1.4. Polymerase Chain Reaction

6.2. Results And Discussion

6.2.1. Results Of Protein Microsequencing

6 2.2. Synthesis Of Oligonucleotides And Use Of PCR To Obtain DNAEncoding An Amino Acid Fragment

6.2.3. Nucleotide Sequence Of cDNA Fragment

6.2.4. Cloning Of The Entire Porcine BDNF cDNA

6.2.5. Nucleotide Sequence Of Porcine BDNF cDNA

7. Example: BDNF Gene Is Distinct From The NGF Gene In DiverseVertebrate Species

7.1. Materials And Methods

7.1.1. Preparation Of NGF And BDNF Probes

7.1.2. Sequencing Of BDNF Genes From Various Species

7.2. Results And Discussion

8. Example: Expression Of BDNF RNA In Neuronal Versus Non-NeuronalTissues

1. Materials and Methods

8.1.1. Preparation Of RNA

8.1.2. Preparation Of cRNA Probe

Results And Discussion

9. Example: Molecular Cloning And Characterization Of Human And Rat BDNFGenes

9.1. Materials And Methods

9.1.1. Genomic DNA and cDNA Libraries

9.1.2. Preparation Of BDNF DNA Probes

9 1.3. Screening Of Libraries

9.2 Results and Discussion

10. Example: Expression Of Recombinant BDNF

10.1. Materials And Methods

10.1.1 Preparation Of A BDNF Expression Vector

10.1.2. Expression Of BDNF in COS Cells

10.2. Results And Discussion

11. Example: Generation Of Antibodies To BDNF

11.1. Materials And Methods

11.1.1. Peptide Synthesis And Coupling To Carrier

11.1.2. Immunization

11.1.3. Detection Of Antibody Binding To BDNF

11.2. Results And Discussion

12. Example: Novel Biological Effects Of BDNF

12.1. Materials And Methods

12.1.1. Methods For Culturing Dopaminergic Substantia Nigra Neurons

12.1.2. Methods For Immunooytochemical Staining Of Ventral MesencephalonCultures

12.1.3. Methods Used in Measuring ³ H-Dopamine Uptake In VentralMesencephalon Cultures

12.1.4. Methods For Producing Cultures Of Basal Forebrain CholinergicNeurons

12.1.5. Choline Acetyl Transferase Assays

12.1.6. Method Of Generating Purified Astroglial Cell Cultures

Results

12.2.1. The Effect Of BDNF On Tyrosine Hydroxylase Present In VentralMesencephalon Cultures

12.2.2. The Effect Of BDNF On Dopamine Uptake By Ventral MesencephalonCultures

12.2.3. The Effect Of BDNF On Choline Acetyltransferase Expression ByForebrain Cholinergic Neurons

12.2.4. Effects Of BDNF Or EGF On Astroglial Cell Cultures

12.3. Discussion

13. Example: Identification of a Novel Gene in the BDNF/NGF Gene Family

13.1. Materials and Methods

13.1.1. Polymerase Chain Reaction

13.2. Results

13.2.1. Amplification of Both NGF and BDNF Sequences from Genomic DNA

13.2.2. Detection of Sequences Complementary to the BDNF/NGF Probe inGenomic DNAs of Various Species

13.2.3. Identification of a Novel Gene Related to BDNF and NGF

13.2.4. Characterization of a Novel Member of the BDNF/NGF Gene Family

13.3. Discussion

14 Example: Increased Expression of BDNF in Neuroblastoma Cells

14.1. Materials and Methods

14.1.1. Cell Lines

14.1.2. Preparation of RNA

14.2. Results

15. Example: Activity-Dependent Regulation of BDNF- and NGF-mRNAs in theRat Hippocampus is Mediated by Non-NMDA-Glutamate Receptors

14.1. Materials and Methods

15.1.1. Treatment of Rats with Kainic Acid

15.1.2. Preparation of Hippocampal Cultures

15.1.3. Amplification of RNA

15.2 Results and Discussion

16. Example: Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Increases Survival andDifferentiated Functions of Rat Septal Cholinergic Neurons in Culture

16.1. Materials and Methods

16.1.1. Preparation of Dissociated Cells and Cell Culture Conditions

16.1.2. Assay of Choline Acetyltransferase Activity

16.1.3. Assay of Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) Activity

16.1.4. Measurement of High Affinity Choline Uptake

16.1.5. Histochemical Staining for Acetylcholinesterase

16.1.6. Immunohistochemical Staining for the NGF Receptor

16.1.7. Purification of BDNF and NGF

16.2. Results

16.3. Discussion

17. Example: Enzymatic Conversion of Prepro BDNF to Active, Mature BDNF

17.1. Materials And Methods

17.2 Results and Discussion

18. Example: Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Promotes Survival andMaturation of Dopaminergic Neurons of the Rat Ventral Mesencephalon

18.1. Materials and Methods

18.1.1. Cell Cultures

18.1.2. Measurement of Dopamine Uptake

18.1.3. Transient Expression of BDNF

18.1.4. Production of hBDNF from Transfected CHO Cells

18.2. Results and Discussion

19. Example: BDNF Produces a Dose-Dependent Inhibition Of GammaAminobutyric Acid Uptake

19.1. Materials And Methods

19.1.1. Hippocampal Cell Cultures

19.1.2. Measurement Of High Affinity Uptake For Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid

19.2. Results And Discussion

20. Example: BDNF Confers A Protective Effect Against Toxic Effects OfMPP+

20.1. Materials And Methods

20.1.1. Measurement Of The Effects Of Neurotrophic Factors OnMPP+-Treated SH-SY5Y Cells

20.1.2. Measurement Of The Effects Of Neurotrophic Factors OnMPP+-Treated Ventral Mesencephalic Cultures

20.2. Results And Discussion

21. Deposit Of Microorganisms

1. INTRODUCTION

The present invention relates to nucleic acid sequences encoding brainderived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), to the substantially pure protein,peptide fragments or derivatives produced in quantity therefrom, and toantibodies directed toward BDNF protein, peptide fragments, orderivatives. In addition, the invention relates to genes that aremembers of a newly defined BDNF/NGF gene family, and to their geneproducts. The invention also relates to pharmaceutical compositionscomprising effective amounts of BDNF gene products or, alternatively,antibodies directed toward BDNF gene products, and to methods ofdiagnosing and treating a variety of neurological diseases anddisorders, including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Inparticular, the BDNF gene products of the invention have value in thediagnosis and therapy of disorders of dopaminergic neurons, such asParkinson's disease, as well as disorders of sensory neurons anddegenerative diseases of the retina.

2. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 2.1. Neuronal Cell Death and the Role ofNeurotrophic Factors in the Development of the Nervous System

Throughout many parts of the vertebrate nervous system many more neuronsare present during early development than are found in the adult animal.Periods of early development are characterized by waves of naturallyoccurring neuronal cell death (Carr and Simpson, 1978, J. Comp. Neurol.,182:727-740; Cowan et al., 1984, Science 225:1258-1265). The survival,differentiation and maturation of developing neurons may be regulated byenvironmental or `epigentic` factors rather than by a strict intrinsicgenetic program. For example, experimental manipulations of the chickembryo have shown that transplantation or extirpation of peripheral"target fields", such as a limb bud or the eye, at early stages in chickdevelopment can result in a corresponding increase or decrease,respectively, in the number of sensory, sympathetic, parasympathetic ormotorneurons adjacent to the enlarged or depleted target field(Hamburger, 1934, J. Exp. Zool. 68:449; Hollyday and Hamburger, 1976, J.Comp. Neurol., 170:311-321; Landmesser and Pilar, 1976, J. Cell. Biol.,68:357-374). A target field may only support a limited number ofneurons, and a normal part of the developmental process may be thepruning of an excess number of neurons to match the "neurotrophic"capacity of the target tissue. The discovery and isolation of theprotein now called nerve growth factor (NGF) has led to a molecularhypothesis of how a target may be able to regulate the number of neuronswhich survive and innervate that tissue (Levi-Montalcini et al., 1968,Physiol Rev., 48:524-569; Thoenen and Barde, 1980, Physiol Rev.,60:1284-1335).

It is now well established, at least in the peripheral nervous system,that neuronal target tissues synthesize and release limited quantitiesof various neurotrophic molecules which are critical to the survival ofspecific types of neurons (Korsching and Thoenen, 1983, Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 80:3513-3516; Heumann et al., 1984, EMBO J.3:3183-3189; Shelton and Reichardt, 1984, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci U.S.A.81:7051-7955; Korsching and Thoenen, 1985, Neurosci. Lett. 54:201-205).

2.2. Nerve Growth Factor

Nerve growth factor (NGF) is by far the most fully characterized ofthese neurotrophic molecules and has been shown, both in vitro and invivo, to be essential for the survival of sympathetic and neuralcrest-derived sensory neurons during early development of both chick andrat (Levi-Montalcini and Angeletti, 1963, Develop. Biol. 7:653-659;Levi-Montalcini et al., 1968, Physiol. Rev. 48:524-569). Injections ofpurified NGF into the developing chick embryo have been found to causemassive hyperplasia and hypertrophy of spinal sensory neurons andsympathetic neurons (Levi-Montalcini and Booker, 1960, Proc. Natl. Acad.Sci. U.S.A. 46:373-384; Hamburger et al., 1981, J. Neurosci. 1:60-71).Conversely, removal or sequestration of endogenous NGF by dailyinjection of anti-NGF antibodies into neonatal rats has been associatedwith virtual destruction of the sympathetic nervous system(Levi-Montalcini and Booker, 1960, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.46:384-391; Levi-Montalcini and Angeletti, 1966, Pharmacol. Rev.18:619-628). Exposure to NGF antibodies even earlier in developmenteither by antibody injections in utero or by passive transplacentaltransfer of maternal antibodies has been shown to result in asubstantial loss of neural crest-derived sensory neurons such as spinaland dorsomedial trigeminal sensory neurons (Goedert et al., 1984, Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 81:1580-1584; Gorin and Johnson, 1979, Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 76:5382-5386). Until recently, almost allstudies of NGF had focused on its role in the peripheral nervous system,but it now appears that NGF also influences the development andmaintenance of specific populations of neurons in the central nervoussystem (Thoenen et al., 1987, Rev. Physiol. Biochem. Pharmacol.109:145-178; Whittemore and Seiger, 1987, Brain Res. Rev. 12:439-464).

The serendipitous discovery of large amounts of NGF protein in thesubmandibular gland of the adult male mouse (Cohen, 1960, Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 46:302-311) and an earlier discovery of high levels ofNGF in snake venom (Cohen and Levi-Montalcini, 1956, Proc. Natl. Acad.Sci. U.S.A. 42:571-574) fortuitously provided sufficient quantities ofNGF to permit studies relating to the physiology, protein chemistry,and, more recently, the molecular biology of NGF (i.e. molecular cloningof NGF and its receptor). The function of large amounts of NGF in theadult male mouse salivary gland remains unknown; however, it appearsthat this abundant source of NGF may not play any role in development ormaintenance of the peripheral or central nervous system. In targettissues innervated by NGF sensitive neurons (neurons which have beenshown to depend on NGF for survival, to possess high affinity NGFreceptors and to internalize and retrogradely transport NGF with highspecificity), the steady state of measurable levels of NGF have beenfound to be extremely low, in the range of picograms or nanograms pergram of tissue, compared to thousand-fold higher levels in adult malemouse salivary gland tissue. NGF has not been found at any appreciablelevel in serum and therefore does not appear to be a circulating growthfactor or hormone (Suda et al., 1978, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.75:4042-4046).

In addition to the important discovery of a major source of NGF proteinin the mouse submandibular gland, the development of sensitive, reliableand efficient biological assays has played a major role in elucidatingthe biology and biochemistry of NGF. Dorsal root ganglia (DRG) of thedeveloping chick embryo were one of the first neuronal types to be shownto be responsive to NGF in vitro. Explant cultures of E8-E12 chick DRGin a plasma clot, and, more recently, dissociated neuron-enrichedcultures of chick DRG have proven very useful in bioassays for NGFactivity (e.g. during purification) and for in vitro studies of NGFbiology (Levi-Montalcini et al., 1954, Cancer Res. 4:49-57;Levi-Montalcini and Angeletti, 1963, Develop. Biol. 1:653-659; Greene,1977, Develop. Biol. 58:96, ibid 58:106). The fact that more than fortyDRG can be dissected from a single chick embryo has led to thewidespread use of NGF bioassays in many laboratories.

In addition to the availability of large quantities of NGF protein andefficient NGF assay systems, a third major factor which has greatlycontributed to our understanding of the biology of NGF is the relativeease with which antibodies to NGF can be raised in guinea pigs, rabbits,sheep, etc.; it appears that mouse NGF is highly immunogenic. Cohen(1960, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 46:302-311) raised antibodies tothe NGF he had purified from mouse submandibular gland and showed, withLevi-Montalcini and Booker (1960, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.46:384-391) that these antibodies caused destruction of sympatheticganglia, or "immunosympathectomy," when administered daily to newbornrats (Levi-Montalcini and Angeletti, 1966, Pharmacol. Rev. 18:619-628).

The abundance of NGF protein allowed the primary sequence to bedetermined by relatively conventional protein chemistry (Angeletti andBradshaw, 1971, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 68:2417-2420). The NGF gene hasnow been cloned from many species, including mouse (Scott et al., 1983,Nature 302:538-540), human (Ullrich et al., 1983, Nature 303:821-825),cow and chick (Meier et al., 1986, EMBO J. 5:1489-1493), and rat(Whittemore et al., 1988, J. Neurosci. Res., 20:402-410) usingessentially conventional molecular biology based on the availability ofthe protein sequence of mouse NGF to design suitable oligonucleotideprobes. The availability of abundant NGF has also greatly facilitatedstudies on the NGF receptor, which have ultimately led to the molecularcloning of the NGF receptor from human and rat (Johnson et al., 1986,Cell, 47:545-554; Radeke et al., 1987, Nature 325:593-597).

It is now well established that NGF is not a ubiquitous neurotrophicfactor. Within the peripheral nervous system, NGF appears not to be asurvival factor for parasympathetic neurons, neural placode-derivedsensory neurons or enteric neurons, as determined both from studies invitro and in vivo. Furthermore, NGF does not appear to be a survivalfactor for developing motorneurons (Oppenheim, 1982, J. Comp. Neurol.210:174-189), although these neurons do appear to express at least a lowaffinity form of the NGF receptor during development (Raivich et al.,1985, EMBO J. 4:637-644). The lack of effects of NGF on these neuronaltypes has prompted the search for other neurotrophic factors, especiallyfactors that would sustain the survival of spinal cord motorneuronsand/or parasympathetic neurons of the ciliary ganglion.

2.3. Other Neurotrophic Factors

In the past decade there have been numerous reports of neurotrophicactivity in extracts of a great variety of tissues and in theconditioned culture medium of many different cell types. In almost allcases, however, progress in purifying and characterizing theseactivities has been hampered by the fact that such activities arepresent in extremely small amounts, in the range of picograms tonanograms per gram of tissue.

Furthermore, whereas adequate bioassays have been established forperipheral neurons, designing reliable, reproducible and specific assaysfor central nervous system neurons has proved problematic. Whileindividual types of peripheral neurons are found as discrete, easilydissectable ganglia, central nervous system (CNS) neurons are invariablyhighly heterogenous in their distribution. Thus, specific markers arerequired for either identification or enrichment of particular classesof CNS neurons. Progress in producing such markers, for example,antibodies directed toward cell surface or cytoskeletal components, orspecific histological stains, has been very limited. Accordingly,characterization of neurotrophic factors which are (i) not as abundantas NGF, (ii) difficult to assay, and (iii) not available in sufficientquantities to elicit antibody production, has proved to be anexceedingly difficult process.

2.3.1. Comparison of a Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) andNerve Growth Factor

Neurotrophic activity capable of sustaining the survival of embryonicchick dorsal root ganglion neurons in vitro was identified in the"conditioned medium" in which rat C-6 glioma cells had been cultured(Barde et al., 1978, Nature 274:818). The activity was not neutralizedby antibodies to mouse NGF, suggesting the presence of anotherneurotrophic factor in the conditioned medium. Similar activities thatcould not be blocked by NGF antibodies were subsequently reported incultures of normal adult rat brain astroglial cells (Lindsay, 1979,Nature 282:80-82; Lindsay et al., 1982, Brain Res. 243:329-343) and inextracts of developing and adult rat brain (Barde et al., 1980, Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 77:1199-1203) and developing and mature chickspinal cord (Lindsay and Peters, 1984, Neurosci. 12:45-51). However, inno case was the active factor(s) isolated or identified, and it remainsquestionable as to whether the observed activities were due to the sameor different factor(s).

Using pig brain as a starting material, Barde et al. (1982, EMBO J.1:549-553) reported a factor, now termed brain-derived neurotrophicfactor (BDNF), which appeared to promote the survival of dorsal rootganglion neurons from E10/E11 chick embryos. The neurotrophic activitywas found to reside in a highly basic protein (isoelectric point,pI>10.1) which migrated during sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) gelelectrophoresis as a single band of 12.3 kD molecular weight. Thepurification factor was estimated to be 1.4×10⁶, but the yield was verylow, with only approximately 1 μg of BDNF purified from 1.5 kg of pigbrain. Furthermore, because the last step in the purification processwas preparative gel electrophoresis, the activity of BDNF could not befully renatured secondary to the presence of residual SDS (Barde andThoenen, 1985, in "Hormones and Cell Regulation," Vol. 9, Dumont et al.,eds. Elsevier Science Publishers, pp. 385-390). It was noted that thehighly basic nature and molecular size of BDNF were very similar to theNGF monomer. However, BDNF appeared to have properties that differedfrom the known properties of NGF in that (a) in the chick dorsal rootganglion bioassay, antibodies to NGF had no apparent effect on thebiological activity of BDNF; (b) the effects of BDNF and NGF appeared tobe additive; and (c) unlike NGF, BDNF was found to have no effect on thesurvival of E12 chick sympathetic neurons. In addition, during earlystudies with brain extracts, it was observed that the neurotrophicactivity in these sources appeared to act upon sensory neurons at laterstages of development than were associated with NGF. Using dissociatedcultures of chick embryo neurons cultured on a polycationic substratesuch as polylysine or polyornithine, BDNF was found to support thesurvival of more than 30 per cent of E10-11 (embryonic day ten oreleven) dorsal root ganglion neurons but seemed to have little effect onthe survival of the same neurons at E6 (Barde et al., 1980, Proc. Natl.Acad. U.S.A. 77:1199-1203 supra). Under similar conditions, NGFsupported the survival of 30-40 percent of E6 DRG neurons.Interestingly, it was later found that when cultured on a substratecoated with the extracellular matrix glycoprotein laminin, both NGF andBDNF supported the survival of about 50 per cent of DRG neurons fromchick embryos of ages E6-E12 (Lindsay et al., 1985, Develop. Biol.112:319-328). In the latter study, the effects of NGF and BDNF werefound to be additive when both were present at saturatingconcentrations.

Early studies by Levi-Montalcini (1966, The Harvey Lectures 60:217-259)on the neuronal specificity of NGF suggested that NGF was not aubiquitous neurotrophic factor even for sensory neurons, as NGF appearedto have no effect upon neurons of certain cranial sensory ganglia of thechick, especially the nodose ganglion of the tenth cranial nerve. Laterin vivo studies (Johnson et al., 1980, Science 210:916-918; Pearson etal., 1983 Develop. Biol. 96:32-36) showed that NGF deprivation duringembryogenesis had no effect on the survival of neurons in most cranialsensory ganglia of the rat, while similar treatment greatly depleted theneuronal count in sensory ganglia derived from the neural crest. Moredetailed in vitro studies (Lindsay and Rohrer, 1985, Develop. Biol.112:30-48; Davies and Lindsay, 1985, Develop. Biol. 111:62-72; Lindsayet al., 1985, J. Cell. Sci. Suppl. 3:115-129) clearly indicated that NGFsupports the survival of most neural crest-derived sensory neurons buthas no apparent effect on the survival of cranial sensory neuronsderived from neural placodes.

The first demonstration of a neuronal specificity of BDNF distinct fromthat of NGF was the demonstration in vitro that purified BDNF supportsthe survival of 40-50% of sensory neurons dissociated from the neuralplacode-derived nodose ganglion of the chick embryo at E6, E9 or E12(Lindsay et al., 1985, J. Cell. Sci. Supp. 3:115-129). NGF was withoutapparent effect on these neurons either by itself or in conjunction withBDNF. It was later shown in explant culture studies that BDNF appearedto support survival and neurite outgrowth from other neuralplacode-derived sensory ganglia, including the petrosal, geniculate andventrolateral trigeminal ganglia (Davies et al., 1986, J. Neurosci.6:1897-1904), none of which have been found to be sensitive to NGF. Inall of the above studies antibodies to NGF had no effect upon theobserved activity of BDNF. In addition to its effects on culturedneurons from peripheral ganglia, BDNF was found to stimulate survivaland neuronal differentiation of cells cultured from quail neural crest(Kalcheim and Gendreau, 1988, Develop. Brain Res. 41:79-86).

Prior to the instant invention, the inability to produce sufficientamounts of BDNF for immunization prevented the production of anti-BDNFantibodies for comparison to anti-NGF antibodies in their effects onneuronal populations, and precluded BDNF/NGF cross-neutralizationexperiments. Two recent studies with BDNF (Kalcheim et al., 1987, EMBOJ. 6:2871-2873; Hofer and Barde, 1988, Nature 331:261-262) have,however, indicated a physiological role of BDNF in avian PNSdevelopment. If a mechanical barrier was placed in ovo between E3/E4 DRG(embryonic day 3 or 4 dorsal root ganglia) and their CNS target in theneural tube, many DRG neurons were observed to die (Kalcheim and LeDouarin, 1986, Develop. Biol. 116:451-466). It was postulated that thisneuronal death may have been due to deprivation from a CNS (neural tube)derived neurotrophic factor. It was subsequently observed that BDNFattached to a laminin-coated sialastic membrane could prevent this celldeath (Kalcheim et al., 1987, EMBO J. 6:2871-2873). Injections of BDNFinto developing quail eggs has been found to reduce naturally occurringcell death in the nodose ganglia, an effect not seen with NGF (Hofer andBarde, 1988, Nature 331:261-262). In addition to its effect onperipheral sensory neurons of both neural crest and neural placodeorigin, BDNF was found to support the survival of developing CNSneurons. Johnson et al. (1986, J. Neurosci. 6:3031-3938) presents datathat indicates that BDNF supports the survival of retinal ganglion cellscultured from E17 rat embryos. This was in agreement with previousstudies which showed that conditioned media and brain extracts preparedfrom the target regions of retinal ganglion cells appeared to supportthe survival of these neurons (McCaffery et al., 1982, Ex. Brain Res.48:37-386; Sarthy et al., 1983, J. Neurosci. 3:2532-2544: Turner et al.,1983, Dev. Brain Res. 6:77-83).

In addition to its effects on the survival of developing neurons inculture, BDNF has been shown to have effects on cultured adultperipheral and central nervous system neurons. BDNF, as well as NGF, hasbeen shown to stimulate axonal regeneration from adult rat DRG neuronsin culture (Lindsay, 1988, J. Neurosci. 8:2394-2405) although adultsensory neurons did not appear to require neurotrophic factors formaintenance in vitro over 3 or 4 weeks. Furthermore, in cultures ofadult rat retina, BDNF was observed to promote both survival and axonalelongation from retinal ganglion cells (Thanos et al., 1989, Eur. J.Neurosci. 1:19-26). A comparison of the biological effects of NGF andBDNF is presented in Table I.

                  TABLE I                                                         ______________________________________                                        COMPARISON OF BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES OF                                        BDNF AND NGF*                                                                                     SURVIVAL**                                                                    BDNF   NGF                                                ______________________________________                                        PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM                                                     (i)  E6 Chick DRG         -        ++                                              E10 Chick DRG        -        ++                                              E12 Chick Sympathetic neurons                                                                      -        ++                                         (ii) E6-E12 Chick DRG     ++       ++                                              E6-E12 Chick Nodose  ++       -                                               E12 Chick Sympathetic neurons                                                                      -        ++                                              E12 Chick ciliary    -        -                                               (Lindsay et al., 1985, supra)                                            (iii)                                                                              E3-E14 Chick:                                                                 Jugular              +/++     ++                                              DM-trigeminal        +/++     ++                                              Petrosal             +/++     -                                               Geniculate           +/++     -                                               VL-trigeminal        ++       -                                               Vestibular           -        -                                               Mesencephalic        ++       -                                               (Davies et al., 1986, supra)                                                  (Barde et al., 1987, Prog.                                                    Brain Res., 71:185-189)                                                  CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM                                                        (i)  E17 Rat Retinal Ganglion Cells                                                                     ++       -                                               (Johnson et al., 1986,                                                        J. Neurosci. 63031-3038)                                                 ______________________________________                                         *in chronological order according to publication date; effects tested in      vitro                                                                         **no survival: (-); moderate survival (+); good survival (++)            

2.3.2. Neuronal Targets of Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor

Sensory neurons of peripheral nerve ganglia have been found to arisefrom either of two distinct, transient embryological structures, namely,the neural crest and neural placodes. The neural crest appears to giverise to both neurons and satellite cells of autonomic ganglia and spinalnerve sensory ganglia, i.e. DRG. The contribution of the neural crestand neural placodes to the formation of cranial nerve sensory gangliahas been studied using the quail/chick chimera transplantation systemdevised by Le Douarin (Le Douarin, 1973, Develop. Biol. 20:217-222;Noden, 1978, Develop. Biol. 67:313-329; Narayanan and Narayanan, 1980,Anat. Rec. 196:71-82; Ayer-Le Lievre and Le Douarin, 1982, Develop.Biol. 94:291-310; D'Amico-Maratel and Nodem, 1983, Am. J. Anat.166:445-468). As reviewed in Lindsay et al. (1985, J. Cell. Sci. Supp.3:115-129), it is now believed, at least for birds, that neurons of thedistal ganglia of the VIIth, IXth, and Xth cranial nerves (geniculate,petrosal and nodose ganglia, respectively) and neurons of thevestibuloacoustic complex of the VIIIth cranial nerve are exclusively ofneural placode origin. The trigeminal ganglion of the Vth cranial nervecontains neurons of both crest and placode origin (with theplacode-derived neurons predominant in the ventrolateral pole of themaxillo-mandibular lobe) whereas the satellite cells of all cranialganglia have been found to be entirely of neural crest origin.

From in vitro experiments using both explant and dissociated,neuron-enriched cultures of spinal and cranial nerve sensory neurons, ithas been found that sensory neurons of neural crest origin areresponsive to NGF; in contrast, neurons derived from neural placodes(including neurons of the ventrolateral portion of the trigeminalganglion and the entire neuronal population of the vestibular,geniculate, petrosal and nodose ganglia) have been observed to belargely unresponsive to NGF throughout embryonic development. Incontrast to differences in their requirement and responsiveness to NGF,both placode and PG,23 neural crest derived sensory neurons have beenfound (Table I) to be responsive to the survival and neurite-promotingactivity of BDNF (Lindsay et al., 1985, J. Cell. Sci. Supp. 3:115-129;Lindsay et al., 1985, Develop. Biol. 112:319-328 Kalcheim and Gendreau,1988, Develop. Brain Res. 41:79-86). Tebar and Barde (1988, J. Neurosci.8:3337-3342) studied the binding parameters of radioactively labeledBDNF to chick embryo dorsal root ganglion neurons; their results areconsistent with the existence of two classes of BDNF receptors, one withhigh affinity for BDNF, the other with low affinity. No high affinityreceptors were observed on sympathetic neurons.

The known neuronal targets of BDNF were further reviewed by Barde et al.(1987, Prog. Brain Res. 71:185-189). Prior to the instant invention,identification of cells synthesizing BDNF has not been feasible due tothe lack of nucleic acid or antibody probes specific for BDNF. Attemptsto prepare either polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies to BDNF have beenunsuccessful. This failure to raise antibodies had hindered themolecular cloning of BDNF, determination of the physiological effect ofdepriving developing neurons of BDNF in vivo, quantitation of BDNF intissues using an immunoassay, and localization of BDNF usingimmunocytochemistry.

                  TABLE II                                                        ______________________________________                                        SUMMARY OF BDNF RESPONSIVE                                                    AND NON-RESPONSIVE NEURONS*                                                   ______________________________________                                        A. Responsive Neurons                                                         I.     Chick sensory neurons of neural crest origin in:                       (a)      dorsal root ganglion                                                 (b)      jugular ganglion                                                     (c)      dorsomedial trigeminal ganglion                                      (d)      mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus**                                   II.    Chick sensory neurons of ectodermal placode origin in:                 (a)      nodose ganglion                                                      (b)      vestibular ganglion                                                  (c)      petrosal ganglion                                                    (d)      geniculate ganglion                                                  (e)      ventrolateral trigeminal ganglion                                    III.   Rat retinal ganglion cells                                             B. Non-Responsive Neurons                                                     I.     Chick and rat sympathetic neurons                                      II.    Chick parasympathetic ciliary neurons                                  ______________________________________                                         *From Barde et al., 1987, Prog. Brain Res. 71:185-189                         **See Davies et al., 1986, Nature 319:497-499                            

3. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to nucleic acid sequences encoding brainderived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), to the substantially pure protein,peptide fragments of derivatives produced in quantity therefrom, and toantibodies directed toward BDNF protein, peptide fragments, orderivatives. The present invention makes available, for the first time,sufficient quantities of BDNF to enable anti-BDNF antibody productionand to support diagnostic and therapeutic applications of BDNF.

In various embodiments of the invention, the BDNF nucleic acids,proteins, peptides, derivatives, or antibodies of the invention may beutilized in methods for the diagnosis and treatment of a variety ofneurologic diseases and disorders, and, in particular, in the diagnosisand treatment of sensory neuron disorders and retinal degeneration.Furthermore, in specific embodiments of the invention, BDNF nucleicacids or BDNF gene products may be used in the diagnosis and treatmentof neuroblastoma tumor, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease.BDNF gene products may also be used to facilitate incorporation ofimplants into nervous tissue or, alternatively, to promote nerveregeneration following damage by trauma, infarction, infection, orpost-operatively, in additional specific embodiments of the invention.

The invention also relates to pharmaceutical compositions comprisingeffective amounts of BDNF gene products or, alternatively, antibodiesdirected toward BDNF gene products, which may be utilized in thediagnosis or treatment of a variety of neurological diseases anddisorders.

In addition, by providing the full nucleotide sequence of BDNF, thepresent invention allows for the comparison of BDNF and NGF genes,thereby identifying homologous regions and defining a BDNF/NGF genefamily. Accordingly, the present invention relates to a method foridentifying additional members of the BDNF/NGF gene family. In aspecific embodiment, the method of the invention is used to identify anovel, non-NGF, non-BDNF member of the BDNF/NGF gene family. Theinvention further provides for additional members of the BDNF/NGF genefamily identified according to the disclosed method and to their geneproducts.

3.1. Abbreviations and Definitions

BDNF--brain derived neurotrophic factor

hBDNF--human BDNF

CAT--choline acetyltransferase

CNS--central nervous system

DRG--dorsal root ganglia (ganglion)

EDTA--ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid

NGF--nerve growth factor

PBS--phosphate buffered saline

PCR--polymerase chain reaction

PNS--peripheral nervous system

SDS--sodium dodecyl sulfate

Tris--tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane

4. DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES

FIG. 1. Nucleotide sequence and deduced amino-acid sequence of porcineprepro BDNF cDNA. The complete sequence resulting from analysis of twooverlapping cDNA clones is shown in this figure. The peptide sequencesobtained from microsequencing (Table III) are underlined. The onlyconcensus sequence for N-glycosylation is double underlined. The startof the mature BDNF sequence is marked by a double carat.

FIG. 2. Sequence comparison between NGF and BDNF. Areas with more thantwo amino acids found at identical positions are indicated. Thesequences start with the first amino acids of the mature proteins andend with the last ones before the stop codons. Fifty-one amino acids arecommon to BDNF and the various NGFs (Schwarz et al., 1989, J. Neurochem.52:1203-1209), including the 6 cysteine residues.

FIG. 3. Autoradiograph of Southern blots of EcoRI cut human, monkey,rat, mouse, dog, cow, rabbit, chicken, and yeast genomic DNA, hybridizedto ³² p-labeled NGF and BDNF probes.

FIGS. 4A through 4I. Sequence of human BDNF cDNA and deduced amino acidsequence, and comparison of DNA sequences from pig, rat, and chicken.

FIG. 4A depicts the cDNAs sequenced for (in descending order) human,rat, pig and chicken BDNF. FIGS. 4B and 4C present noncoding DNAsequence. The DNA sequence encoding pre-pro BDNF, and the correspondingamino acid sequence, begin in FIG. 4C and continue through FIGS. 4D, 4E,and into FIG. 4F. DNA sequence encoding mature BDNF, and thecorresponding amino acid sequence, begins in FIG. 4F and continuesthrough FIG. 4G into FIG. 4H. cDNA sequence corresponding to theuntranslated region of the BDNF mRNA beings in FIG. 4H and continuesthrough FIG. 4I.

FIG. 5. BDNF expression plasmid PCMV1-pBDNF.

FIG. 6A (a) Results of ELISA determination of binding of antisera to B5peptide, using serial dilutions of antisera.

6B Quantitation of binding of 1:500 dilution of various antisera to 50ng BDNF.

FIG. 7. Results of immunohistochemical staining for tyrosine hydroxylasein BDNF-treated (hatched bars) and control (solid bars) ventralmesencephalon cultures.

FIG. 8. Dopamine uptake by ventral mesencephalon cultures. Culturessupplemented with BDNF are denoted by hatched bars; control cultures arerepresented by solid bars.

FIG. 9A (a) The effect of BDNF on the number of CAT positive cells inforebrain cholinergic neuron cultures.

9B Forebrain cholinergic neuron cultures, at densities of 260,000 cellsper well (black bar) or 150,000 cells per well (hatched bar), weretreated with 150 ng/ml of NGF. The number of CAT immunopositive cells inNGF-treated versus untreated cells was compared.

FIG. 10. Changes in the amount of CAT enzyme activity, in picomoles ofsubstrate catalyzed per minute, as a function of BDNF concentration inforebrain cholinergic neuron cultures.

FIG. 11A. Astroglial cell cultures, at approximately 60% confluency,were treated with epidermal growth factor for 42 hours, then incubatedwith [³ H] methylthymidine. Amount of ³ H incorporated was measuredrelative to EGF concentration.

FIG. 11B. Astroglial cell cultures, at approximately 60% confluency,were treated with BDNF for 42 hours, then incubated with [³ H]methylthymidine. Amount of ³ H incorporated was measured relative toBDNF concentration.

FIG. 12 Southern blot of EcoRI restricted chicken, mouse, rat,hybridized to BDNF/NGF probe R1B/2C. The positions of the NGF and BDNFgenomic EcoRI fragments are indicated as N and B, respectively.

FIG. 13. Sequence comparison of NGF and BDNF with novel member ofBDNF/NGF family identified by PCR from mouse DNA with Box 3/Box 4primers: Novel gene [designated here as M3/4], also known asNeurotrophin-3 (NT-3), showing sequence of coding strand only, anddeduced amino acid sequence aligned relative to mature mouse NGF andmature pig, rat, mouse, or human BDNF. Dashes indicate a position wherea deletion of one codon in NGF is used to optimize alignment relative toBDNF and M3/4. Italics indicate matches in amino acid sequence and/orconservative amino acid substitutions.

FIG. 14. Northern blots of RNA from a variety of human tumor-derivedcell lines hybridized to BDNF human probe.

FIG. 15A. Effect of depolarization of BDNF-mRNA levels in hippocampalneurons: time-course of BDNF-mRNA expression in primary cultures ofhippocampal neurons in the presence of 50 mM KCl. Total cellular RNA wasextracted from 0.5×10⁶ cells, glyoxylated and analyzed byelectrophoresis on a 1.3% agarose gel (Biziere, K. and Coyle, T.,Neurosci., 1978, Lett. 8:303; McGeer et al., 1978, Brain. Res. 139:381).RNA transferred to Hybond N filters was hybridized with a ³² P-labelledcRNA probe (specific activity, 10⁹ cpm/μg) specific for mouse BDNF andproduced by run-off transcription in vitro. The two upper bands (4 and1.5kB) correspond to BDNF-mRNA; the two bands for BDNF (4 kb and 1.5 kb)are RNAse A-resistant and represent two different transcripts whichseem, however, to be regulated in a similar manner) and the lower (700bp) to 10 pg of a short BDNF-mRNA recovery standard which was added tosamples before extraction of RNA.

FIG. 11B. Effect of depolarization of BDNF-mRNA levels in hippocampalneurons: calcium dependency. Neurons were incubated.

FIG. 16. Increases in NGF-mRNA levels in hippocampal neurons bypotassium and kainic acid. Neurons were incubated for 3 hours in controlmedium (C) or in the presence of 50 mM KCl (K+) or 25 μM kainic acid(KA). RNA was extracted and the NGF-mRNA levels were determined by thequantitative PCR (11). The values are means±SEM (n=6).

FIG. 17. Dose-response curve for the kainic acid effect. Hippocampalneurons were incubated for 3 hours in the presence of variousconcentrations of kainic acid. RNA was extracted and analyzed asdescribed in FIG. 15A. Values represent means±SEM of three experiments.

FIG. 18A. Time-course of increases in BDNF- and NGF-mRNA levels bykainic acid treatments. Total cellular RNA was extracted and analyzed asindicated in FIG. 16A from hippocampus at the indicated times (in hours)after intraperitoneal injection of kainic acid (12 mg/kg). One singledoes of diazepam (10 mg/kg) was injected 90 minutes after kainic acid(the two bands for BDNF (4 kb and 1.5 kb) are RNAse A-resistant andrepresent two different transcripts which seem, however, to be regulatedin a similar manner. Values corresponding to 1.5 Kb BDNF mRNA (o) and1.3 Kb NGF-mRNA (o) are shown. Similar increases were observed for the 4Kb BDNF-mRNA. Values given represent means±S.E.M. of three to fourexperiments.

FIG. 18B. Time-course of increases in BDNF- and NGF-mRNA levels bykainic acid treatments. Total cellular RNA was extracted and analyzed asindicated in FIG. 16A from cortex at the indicated times.

FIG. 19. Effect of anticonvulsants on the kainic acid-induced expressionof BDNF-mRNA. Rats were injected intraperitoneally with diazepam (10mg/kg) (DZ); MK-801 (1 mg/kg (MK) or Ketamine (20 mg/kg) (KET) 15minutes before injection of kainic acid (12 mg/kg) (+KA) or saline(controls). Three hours later hippocampal tissue was used to preparetotal RNA as indicated in FIG. 15A. Values represent means±SEM of threeexperiments.

FIGS. 20A through 20I. Septal Cell Cultures. Phase-Contrast Micrographof the Time Course of Cell Growth in Culture (FIGS. 20A through 20F).The cells were plated at a density of 1.3×(10⁵) cells/cm² and maintainedin 5 HS/NS as described in the text. The time points recorded were 1(FIGS. 20A and 20B), 2 (FIGS. 20C and 20D), and 4 (FIGS. 20E and 20F)days. Cell type specific markers were used to identify populations ofcells, AChE histochemically stained neurons (FIGS. 20G and 20H) andNGF-receptor immunopositive neurons (FIG. 20I). Scale bar=25 μm.

FIG. 21A. Comparison of the responses of dissociated septal cells toBDNF or NGF treatment on the basis of AChE cell numbers: comparison ofthe response to BDNF (25 ng/ml), NGF (50 ng/ml) or the combination ofboth ligands at different plating densities.

FIG. 21B. Comparison of the response of dissociated septal cells to BDNFor NGF treatment on the basis of AChE cell numbers: comparison of theresponse of cholinergic neurons to a range of BDNF or NGF concentrations(0-50 ng/ml). The cells for these results were grown for a period of11-12 days in serum-containing medium. The data points represent themean±S.E.M. of 6-9 determinations.

FIG. 22. Bar Graph Depicts the Effect of Delaying the Addition of BDNFor NGF to Dissociated Septal Cultures. BDNF (50 ng/ml) or NGF (50 ng/ml)was added to dissociated cell cultures following a delay of 5-6 hours(+12), 5 days (-5/+7) or 7 days (-7/+5). The cultures were maintainedfor 12 days. Cells were scored on the basis of AChE positivehistochemical staining. The results are exposed as the mean±S.E.M. of 4to 5 determinations.

FIG. 23. Bar Graph Depicting the Ability of BDNF or NGF to Regulate theNumbers of NGF-Receptor Immunopositive Cells. The immunoslating for theNGF-receptor was conducted utilizing the monoclonal antibody 192-IgG ata dilution of 1:1000. The dissociated septal cells were plated at adensity of 1.3×(10⁵) cells/cm², and treated continuously for a period of12 days. A comparison is made between a saturating dose of NGF and arange of doses of BDNF (0-100ng/ml). The results depicted are themean±S.E.M. of an n of 4.

FIG. 24A. Dose Response Curve of Septal Cholinergic Neurons to CATInducing Activities of BDNF. Cultures were plated on polyornithine andlaminin-coated 6 mm wells and maintained for 12 days in 5 HS/N3. Thecells were exposed to BDNF 5-6 hours after plating. The BDNF wasreplaced every 3 days when the medium was changed. The results shownrepresent the mean±S.E.M. of an n of 5-6 determinations.

FIG. 24B. Dose Response Curve of Septal Cholinergic Neurons to CATInducing Activities of NGF. Cultures were plated on polyornithine andlaminin-coated 6 mm wells were maintained for 12 days in 5 HS/N3. Thecells were exposed to NGF 5-6 hours after plating. The NGF was replacedevery 3 days when the medium was changed. The results shown representthe mean±S.E.M. of an n of 5-6 determinations.

FIG. 25. Dose Response Effect of BDNF and NGF on AChE Enzyme Activity.Rat septal cholinergic neurons were grown for 12 days inserum-containing medium with hormonal supplements. The cells weretreated with BDNF (open squares) and NGF (solid squares) as describedfor FIGS. 24A and 24B. The results are the mean±S.E.M. of an n of 6-9.The AChE activity in the non-treated cultures was 16.4±2 nmol/Hr/Well.

FIG. 26. Time Course of the Increase in CAT Enzyme Activity Induced byBDNF as Compared to NGF. The time requirement for the stimulation of CATactivity was conducted on cells plated at a density of 2.3×(10⁵)cells/cm² and grown for varying lengths of time in serum-containingmedium with hormonal supplements and exogenous factors. The cells wereinitially exposed to BDNF (open squares) or NGF (solid squares) 5-6hours after plating. The results represent the percent of the activitydetermined in the treated cultures versus the non-treated cultures (n=6,BDNF 12 days n=3).

FIG. 27. Comparison of the Effects of Glial Cells on the Ability of BDNFto Induce CAT Enzyme Activity. Septal cells were plated at a density of2.3×(10⁵) cells/cm². Following a plating period of 5-6 hours, the mediumwas changed to either serum-free or a serum-containing medium bothsupplemented with 1% N3 as detailed in the text. Cytosine arabinoside (1uM) was added for 24 hours in order to further reduce the numbers ofastrocytes. The cultures were then maintained for 12 days. The resultsrepresent the mean±S.E.M. of 4 determinations.

FIG. 28. Bar Graph Depicts the Effect of BDNF or NGF Treatment on theLevel of High-Affinity Choline Uptake. The choline uptake was conductedon cells maintained for 11 days, following plating at a density of1.3×(10⁵) cells/cm². BDNF (50 ng/ml) or NGF (50 ng/ml) were presentduring the entire culture period. The data points represent themean±S.E.M. of 5 determinations for BDNF and 10 for NGF.

FIG. 29. Resolution by SDS-PAGE of 35S-labeled reaction products fromthe enzymatic cleavage of human brain-derived neurotrophic factor bytrypsin and endroproteinase Arg-C.

FIG. 30. Graphic representation of the DRG bioassay comparing untreatedCHO-hBDNF with endroproteinase-cleaved CHO-hBDNF. Neurite outgrowth isscored between 0 and 5 with a score of 6 representing maximalbioactivity.

FIGS. 31A through 31C. Phase-contrast (FIG. 31A) and bright-field (FIGS.31B and 31C) photomicrographs of dissociated cultures of E14 rat ventralmesencephalic cells stained after 9 days in culture with monoclonalantibodies to tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). Phase-contrast (FIGS. 31A) andbright-field (FIG. 31B) photographs of the same field show the lowabundance of TH+ neurons in these cultures. Only a single TH+ neuron(arrows) is seen in a field containing many phase-bright neurons withlong neurites. Few nonneuronal cells are evident, by morphology or bystaining for GFAP (not shown). Bright field photograph (FIG. 31C)showing two TH+ neurons (small arrows) in a field containing about ˜98phase bright cells of neuronal morphology. Scale bar=100 lM.

FIGS. 32A through 32C. Each of FIGS. 32A, 32B and 32C present highmagnification photomicrographs of different views of 6 day culture ofE14 rat ventral mesencephalic cells showing varied morphologies of TH+neurons, some with extensive neuritic growth and extremely elaborategrowth cones (FIGS. 32A and 32B). Cultures were established and stainedas described in legend to FIGS. 31A through 31C. Scale bar=25 μM.

FIG. 33A. BDNF promotes survival of TH+, dopaminergic mesencephalicneurons in culture in dose-dependent manner, evident at culture periodlonger than 3 days: comparison of the number of TH+ neurons in culturesof E14 rat ventral mesencephalon maintained with (solid bars) or withoutBDNF (open bars). In treated cultures, BDNF (50 ng/ml) was added once onculture day 2. No difference between control and treated cultures wasobserved at day 3, but the number of TH+ neurons in BDNF treatedcultures was 1.8-fold higher than controls at day 8. Values are theaverage of duplicate samples.

FIG. 33B. BDNF promotes survival of TH+, dopaminergic mesencephalicneurons in culture in dose-dependent manner, evident at culture periodslonger than 3 days: effect of BDNF on increasing survival of TH+ neuronsis dose-dependent. The number of TH+ neurons were determined induplicate cultures after 8 days in culture in the absence of BDNF ormedium containing increasing concentrations of BDNF added at day 2.

FIG. 33C. NGF has no effect on the survival of TH+ neurons. To assessthe specificity of BDNF, cultures were also grown in the presence orabsence of NGF (50 ng/ml) for 8 days and analyzed for TH+ cells. NGF,added on day 2, did not increase the survival of TH+ neurons in culturesexamined at either day 6 or day 8. Results are the average of duplicatedishes.

FIG. 34. Repeated doses of BDNF further increase the survival of TH+neurons when compared to a single addition of BDNF at day 2. Cultureswere prepared as described in the text. Recombinant human BDNF waspurified from the supernatant of COS M5 cells. Cultures were treatedeither with a single addition (SA; stipled bars) of BDNF (50 ng/ml) onday 2, or with repeated doses of BDNF (50 ng/ml) on days 1, 2, 4, 6 and8 (MA-multiple additions; solid bars), or were grown without BDNF(control; open bars). At the times indicated cultures were fixed andstained for TH immunoreactivity. Replenishing BDNF by multiple additionsresulted in a 2.7 fold higher number of TH+neurons at day 11 compared tocontrols, whereas the maximum increase seen with a single addition ofBDNF was a little less than 2-fold after 11 days. Results, typical ofseveral experiments, are the average of duplicate samples.

FIG. 35. Delayed addition of BDNF does not increase the number of TH+neurons to the same extent as seen when BDNF is added at day 2. Cultureswere prepared as described in the text, with the exception of the timeof addition of exogenous BDNF. All cultures were switched to serum-freemedium at day 2, and BDNF (50 ng/ml, pig brain BDNF) was added as asingle addition either at day 2, day 5 or day 7 (CD2, CD5, CD7). Atculture days six, eight and ten, the number of TH+neurons was determinedin duplicate cultures. In this experiment, a single addition of BDNF atday 2 resulted in a 3-fold higher number of TH+neurons at day 10. WhenBDNF was added after a delay, at day 5, an increase in TH+ neurons overcontrols was seen at day 10, but was less than 2-fold, and thisdifference in TH+cell number between treated and control cultures didnot increase further with longer time in culture. Control, open bars;BDNF addition at day 2, stippled bars; BDNF added at day 5, solid bar;BDNF added at day 7, diagonal-hatched bars.

FIG. 36. Dose-dependent response of BDNF on high affinity GABA uptake inhippocampal cultures. Partially-purified nBDNF (rotophor-purified fromCOS M5 supernatants) was added to the cultures at various dilutions.BDNF at 1×10⁻² dilution was found to have maximal neurite-promotingactivity in E8 chick dorsal root ganglion. High affinity ³ H-GABA uptakewas measured following 8 days of BDNF treatment in vitro.

FIG. 37. BDNF protects cultured nigral dopaminergic neurons from theneurotoxic effects of MPP+. Cultures were established from E14 ratembryos as described in FIG. 1. After 24 hours in vitro the culturemedium was changed to the serum-free formulation. After 3 days inculture the cultures were divided into four groups of six 35 mm dishes.One group was kept as a control group, and the others received either(i) basic fibroblast growth factor, 10 ng/ml (bovine brain bFGF;Boerhinger-Mannheim); (ii) mouse NGF, 50 ng/ml; or (iii) BDNF, 50 ng/ml.Cultures were kept for a further 24 hours before 3 dishes in each groupwere exposed to 1 μM MPP+ (Research Biochemicals, Inc., Natick, Mass.)for 48 hours. At the end of the experiment, 6 days in total, all plateswere processed for TH immunoreactivity and the number of TH+ cells wasdetermined in each group. The data presented represent the numberTH+neurons after MPP+treatment calculated as a percentage of the numberof TH+ neurons in similar cultures not exposed to MPP+. All values arethe mean+s.e.m. of triplicate cultures.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to nucleic acid sequences encoding brainderived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), as well as BDNF protein, peptidefragments and derivatives produced in quantity using these nucleic acidsequences. In addition, the invention relates to pharmacologiccompositions and therapeutic uses of BDNF, having provided, for thefirst time, the means to generate sufficient quantities of substantiallypure BDNF for clinical use. The invention also relates to antibodiesdirected toward BDNF or fragments thereof, having provided a method forgenerating sufficient immunogen. Further, by permitting a comparison ofthe nucleic acid sequences of BDNF and NGF, the present inventionprovides for the identification of homologous regions of nucleic acidsequence between BDNF and NGF, thereby defining a BDNF/NGF gene family;the invention provides a method for identifying and isolating additionalmembers of this gene family.

For purposes of clarity of description, and not by way of limitation,the invention will be described in the following parts:

(i) purification of BDNF

(ii) BDNF bioassays

(iii) microsequencing of BDNF protein

(iv) cloning of BDNF encoding DNA

(v) expression of BDNF

(vi) BDNF genes and proteins

(vii) generation of anti-BDNF antibodies

(viii) identification of additional members of the BDNF/NGF gene family

(ix) utility of the invention

(x) pharmaceutical compositions

5.1. Purification of Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor

In order to identify BDNF encoding nucleic acid, microgram amounts ofBDNF protein may be obtained from tissue to permit the determination ofamino acid sequences which may then be used to design oligonucleotideprobes. The extreme rarity of BDNF protein practically limits the amountof amino acid sequence which may be determined. BDNF may be preparedfrom pig brain by methods described in Barde et al., (1982, EMBO J.1:549-553), or Hofer and Barde (1988, Nature 331:261-262).

Preferably, BDNF may be prepared, according to the following detailedprotocol which is presented by way of example, and not by way oflimitation; various modifications are envisioned for use by one skilledin the art. Because of the rarity of BDNF, preferably about sixkilograms of brain tissue may be used in a purification procedure. Braintissue may be homogenized in sodium phosphate buffer at a concentrationof about 0.2M sodium phosphate and a pH of approximately 6, containing 1mM EDTA and 1 mM freshly added phenylmethanesulphonyl fluoride, suchthat the ratio of brain tissue to fluid is approximately 1 kg of brainto 2 liters of buffer. Hydrochloric acid may then be used to adjust thepH of the mixture to approximately 4, and the mixture may then bestirred for about 2 hours at 4° C. The mixture can then be centrifugedfor 25 minutes at 20,000 g. After centrifugation, the supernatant iscollected, adjusted to a pH of about 6.0 using sodium hydroxide, andthen stirred with about 1 liter of preswollen carboxymethylcellulose(per 6 kg of brain tissue) which has been equilibrated with 0.1M sodiumphosphate at a pH of 6. After several washes with a total of about 20liters of 0.1M sodium phosphate, pH 6, the slurry may be poured into acolumn and washed with the same buffer containing 0.13M NaCl, preferablyovernight. Active fractions, identified by a BDNF sensitive bioassay(see Section 5.2, infra) may then be eluted with phosphate buffercontaining 0.5M NaCl and subsequently dialyzed against several changesof about 5 liters of 5 mM potassium phosphate at a pH of 6.8. Thedialyzed fractions may then be applied to a hydroxyapatite column havinga bed volume of about 20 ml for each kilogram of brain tissue processed;the hydroxyapatite column should be pre-equilibrated with 5 mM potassiumphosphate at a pH of 6.8 prior to application of sample. The column maythen be eluted with a linear gradient composed of 500 ml of 5 mMpotassium phosphate and 500 ml of 700 mM potassium phosphate, both at apH of about 6.8. The BDNF activity should optimally be eluted atapproximately 500 mM potassium phosphate. Pooled active fractions maythen be adjusted to a final molarity of about 700 mM potassium phosphateand applied to a phenyl-sepharose column (having a volume of about 5 mlfor every 6 kg of brain tissue processed) equilibrated with a solutionof 700 mM potassium phosphate having a pH of 6.8. After washing withapproximately 40 ml of the same buffer, BDNF activity may be eluted with0.1M potassium phosphate, pH 6.8, and subsequently the BDNF activity maybe dialyzed against distilled water, and then lyophilized. Thelyophilized material may then be taken up in an SDS-gel electrophoresissample buffer containing 0.1% SDS but preferably containing nomercaptoethanol, and applied to an SDS gel comprised of a lineargradient of 10-25% acrylamide. After completion of electrophoreticseparation, the gel may be stained for about 10 minutes with Coomassieblue, and destained for about 20 minutes. A band migrating at the levelof a cytochrome c marker may be cut out and electrophoretically elutedfrom the gel. SDS may be largely removed as described by Weber and Kuter(1971, J. Biol. Chem. 246:4504-4509). It should be noted that removal ofSDS is generally not complete. A purification procedure formicrosequencing of BDNF was modified according to Hofer and Barde (1988,Nature 331:261-262), and does not make use of a gel electrophoresis asthe last step of purification.

5.2. Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor Bioassays

Any system which qualitatively or quantitatively indicates BDNF activitymay be used according to the present invention. Such bioassays may beuseful in identifying and/or measuring natural or recombinant BDNFactivity.

Any BDNF bioassay known in the art may be used. For example, chickembryo dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons may be utilized in a BDNFassay, as described in Barde et al. (1980, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.77:1199-1203).

By way of example, dorsal root ganglia from 6 to 14 day chick embryos,and preferably 10 to 12 day chick embryos, may be collected, usingdissection techniques known in the art, and immediately placed in asmall volume of F14 medium (made from GIBCO F-12 powder, supplemented asin Vogel et al., 1972, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 69:3180-3184),which should be replaced at the end of the dissection by Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺-free phosphate buffered saline (PBS) containing about 0.1 percenttrypsin. After about 20 minutes of incubation at 37° C., the ganglia maybe centrifuged and washed twice with F14 medium containing about 10percent (vol/vol) heat-inactivated horse serum. The ganglia may then bedissociated by gentle trituration (about 10-15 aspirations) using asmall (about 1 mm) diameter siliconized pasteur pipette. Remaining lumpsof tissue may then, preferably, be removed by passing the cellsuspension through a nylon mesh, having about 40 μm sized pores. Thecell suspension may then be preplated for about 210 minutes on a plastictissue culture dish; during this period, most of the nonneuronal cellsshould adhere to the plastic surface, leaving a neuron-enriched cellpopulation in suspension. Cells may then be diluted to a concentrationof about 5×10³ cells per milliliter of plating medium (preferably F14medium supplemented with 10 percent vol/vol heat inactivated horse serumtogether with antibiotics) and placed in polyornithine or, preferably,polyornithine/laminin coated tissue culture dishes (see infra).

Alternatively, and not by way of limitation, BDNF bioassays which arerelatively insensitive to NGF may, in some circumstances, be preferableto systems, such as the DRG system described supra, which may, undercertain conditions, respond to both BDNF and NGF. Such relativelyBDNF-specific systems would include retinal ganglion cultures as well ascultures of neurons derived from neural placodes.

Perinatal retinal cells may be cultured according to the methodsdescribed in Johnson et al. (1986, J. Neurosci. 6:3031-3038). Forexample, retinas may be removed from perinatal animals (in the rat theterm "perinatal" here refers to embryonic day 17 embryos throughpostnatal pups within 48 hours after birth), washed in calcium andmagnesium free phosphate buffered saline (PBS), then incubated in PBScontaining about 0.05% to 0.1% trypsin for approximately 15 minutes atabout 37° C. After proteolytic digestion, retinas may be washed in F14culture medium containing about 10 per cent (vol/vol) heat-inactivatedhorse serum (F14-HS). The retinas may then be dissociated by gentlepipetting in a small volume (about 1-10 ml) of fresh F14-HS.Undissociated tissue may be allowed to settle, and the remaining cellsand medium pipetted off for culture.

Alternatively, BDNF bioassays which comprise neural placode derivedcells may be used according to the invention. Embryonic cranial nerveexplants of, for example, the ventrolateral portion of the trigeminalganglion, or the vestibular, geniculate, petrosal, or nodose ganglionmay be cultured in collagen-gel overlaid with culture medium, asdescribed in Davies et al. (1986, J. Neurosci. 6:1897-1904) ordissociated according to Barde et al. (1980, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.77:1199-1203).

Because it has been observed that responsiveness to BDNF may beincreased ten-fold by changing the growth substrate from polyornithineto laminin-polyornithine, (Barde et al., 1987, Prog. Brain Res.71:185-189), BDNF assays are preferably performed on laminin-containingsubstrates. Culture surfaces may be prepared, for example, by (i)coating the culture surface for about 8-10 hours with a sterile solutionof polyornithine; (ii) washing several times with sterile water; and(iii) coating the culture surface for about two hours with laminin at aconcentration of approximately 25 μg/ml in PBS (Johnson et al., 1986, J.Neurosci. 6:3031-3038).

In any bioassay system used according to the invention, a BDNFdose-response curve may be established using methods known in the art.Using a dissociated chick sensory ganglion assay, half-maximal survivalwas observed with a concentration of about 5 ng/ml purified BDNF, andmaximal survival was observed with a concentration of between about tenand 20 ng/ml purified BDNF (Barde et al., 1987, Prog. Brain Res.71:185-189).

5.3. Microsequencing of Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor Protein

BDNF protein prepared from brain may be sequenced; however, it must beemphasized that the extreme rarity of the protein makes it unlikely thata substantial portion of BDNF protein sequence may be reliably obtained.The protein may be sequenced directly or initially cleaved by anyprotease or other compound known in the art, including, but not limitedto, Staphylococcus aureus V8, trypsin, and cyanogen bromide. Peptidesmay be sequenced by automated Edman degradation on a gas phasemicrosequencer according to the method of Hewick et al. (1981, J. Biol.Chem. 256:7990-7997) and Hunkapillar et al. (1983, Methods Enzymol.91:227-236). Detection of phenylthiohydantoin amino acids may then bepreformed according to Lottspeich (1985, Chromatography 326:321-327).Overlapping fragments of amino acid sequence may be determined and usedto deduce longer stretches of contiguous sequence.

5.4 Cloning of Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor-Encoding DNA

The rarity of BDNF effectively precludes the use of standard strategiesfor cloning the BDNF gene. For example, if available protein sequencewere used to generate a complementary labeled oligonucleotide probe, andthis probe were used to screen cDNA libraries generated from tissuepresumed to synthesize BDNF, the number of positive clones would belikely to be vanishingly small. The instant invention provides for thecloning of the BDNF gene by a combination of procedures, comprising thepurification of suitable amounts of BDNF protein, microsequencing of theBDNF protein, derivation of an oligonucleotide probe, construction of acDNA library, amplification based on the derived BDNF amino acidsequence, and finally, selection for the BDNF gene. In this method ofthe invention, the preferred procedure for amplification utilizes theamplification of tissue nucleic acid sequences by polymerase chainreaction (PCR) (Saiki et al., 1985, Science 230:1350-1354), in order toexpand the number of BDNF sequences available for cloning. A detaileddescription of the preferred method follows:

Firstly, the amino acid sequence derived from purified BDNF protein maybe used to deduce oligonucleotide primers for use in polymerase chainreaction. Because of the degeneracy of the genetic code, in whichseveral nucleic acid triplets may specify the same amino acid, severaloligonucleotides should be synthesized for a given amino acid sequence,in order to provide for multiple potential nucleotide sequencecombinations; the resulting oligonucleotides are referred to asdegenerate primers.

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) requires sense strand as well asanti-sense strand primers. Accordingly, a degenerate oligonucleotideprimer corresponding to BDNF amino acid sequence may be used as primerfor one DNA strand, and a second primer, homologous to a commonlyoccurring DNA sequence, such as a stretch of thymidine residuesresulting from reverse transcription of the polyadenosine tail of mRNAs,may be used as primer for the second DNA strand. These primers may thenbe used in polymerase chain reaction with nucleic acid template presumedto contain BDNF encoding sequences, such as genomic DNA or, preferably,cDNA prepared from mRNA collected from tissue presumed to synthesizeBDNF. The DNA reaction products may then be analyzed by electrophoresisto determine whether the DNA reaction product has a molecular sizesimilar to the expected size of the BDNF gene and, preferably, bynucleotide sequence analysis.

However, because the use of two degenerate primers in PCR increases thelikelihood of amplifying nucleic acid sequences which do not encodeBDNF, a preferred method provides for the use of only one degenerateprimer, the other primer corresponding to exact BDNF sequence. In orderto identify exact BDNF sequence, the amino acid sequence determinedusing purified BDNF protein may be used to design both degenerate senseand anti-sense oligonucleotide primers. The DNA reaction productresulting from the use of these primers in PCR reaction, using BDNFencoding nucleic acid as a template, should be a nucleic acid fragmentencoding the stretch of amino acids used to design the primers, and maybe of a predictable size (e.g. at minimum, the number of amino acidresidues, multiplied by a factor of three, base pairs in length).Sequence analysis of the DNA reaction product may be compared to theascertained amino acid sequence to corroborate that the amplifiednucleic acid sequence may, in fact, encode the BDNF peptide fragment.Although any method of nucleic acid sequencing known in the art may beutilized, it is preferable to use the dideoxynucleotide chaintermination method (Sanger et al., 1979, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.72:3918-3921). Sequencing may be accomplished using gel purified or,preferably, cloned DNA reaction product. The sequence of the DNAreaction product may then be used toward designing an oligonucleotideprimer corresponding to exact BDNF-encoding sequence. This primer maythen be used together with a second primer, which may be degenerate, toextend the amount of BDNF-sequence beyond that represented by thefragment of exact sequence initially determined. For example, and not byway of limitation, the sense strand primer may correspond to exact BDNFnucleotide sequence, whereas the anti-sense primer may be a degenerateprimer homologous to a region of sequence likely to be found downstreamof the sequenced fragment, e.g. the polyadenosine tail of mRNA, asreverse transcribed in the cDNA. It may then be necessary to use asimilar method to retrieve sequence upstream of the sequenced fragment;for example, the anti-sense strand primer may correspond to exact BDNFnucleotide sequence and the sense strand primer may be a degenerateprimer homologous to a region of BDNF sequence upstream of the sequencedfragment, e.g. a 5' polyadenosine tail added at the 5' end of cDNA usingterminal deoxynucleotide transferase. Accordingly, the sequence of theentire BDNF gene or mRNA may be assembled.

DNA reaction products may be cloned using any method known in the art. Alarge number of vector-host systems known in the art may be used.Possible vectors include, but are not limited to(cosmids, plasmids ormodified viruses, but the vector system must be compatible with the hostcell used. Such vectors include, but are not limited to, bacteriophagessuch as lambda derivatives, or plasmids such as pBR322, pUC, orBluescript® (Stratagene) plasmid derivatives. Recombinant molecules canbe introduced into host cells via transformation, transfection,infection, electroporation, etc.

The BDNF gene is inserted into a cloning vector which can be used totransform, transfect, or infect appropriate host cells so that manycopies of the gene sequences are generated. This can be accomplished byligating the DNA fragment into a cloning vector which has complementarycohesive termini. However, if the complementary restriction sites usedto fragment the DNA are not present in the cloning vector, the ends ofthe DNA molecules may be enzymatically modified. It may proveadvantageous to incorporate restriction endonuclease cleavage sites intothe oligonucleotide primers used in polymerase chain reaction tofacilitate insertion into vectors. Alternatively, any site desired maybe produced by ligating nucleotide sequences (linkers) onto the DNAtermini; these ligated linkers may comprise specific chemicallysynthesized oligonucleotides encoding restriction endonucleaserecognition sequences. In an alternative method, the cleaved vector andBDNF gene may be modified by homopolymeric tailing.

In specific embodiments, transformation of host cells with recombinantDNA molecules that incorporate an isolated BDNF gene, cDNA, orsynthesized DNA sequence enables generation of multiple copies of thegene. Thus, the gene may be obtained in large quantities by growingtransformants, isolating the recombinant DNA molecules from thetransformants and, when necessary, retrieving the inserted gene from theisolated recombinant DNA.

According to a preferred embodiment of the invention, once acDNA-derived clone encoding BDNF has been generated, a genomic cloneencoding BDNF may be isolated using standard techniques known in theart. For example, a labeled nucleic acid probe may be derived from theBDNF clone, and used to screen genomic DNA libraries by nucleic acidhybridization, using, for example, the method set forth in Benton andDavis (1977, Science 196:180) for bacteriophage libraries and Grunsteinand Hogness (1975, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 72:3961-3965) forplasmid libraries. Retrieved clones may then be analyzed byrestriction-fragment mapping and sequencing techniques according tomethods well known in the art.

Furthermore, additional cDNA clones may be identified from a cDNAlibrary using the sequences obtained according to the invention.

5.5. Expression of the Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor Gene

The nucleotide sequence coding for a BDNF protein, or a portion thereof,can be inserted into an appropriate expression vector, i.e., a vectorwhich contains the necessary elements for the transcription andtranslation of the inserted protein-coding sequence. The necessarytranscriptional and translation signals can also be supplied by thenative BDNF gene and/or its flanking regions. A variety of host-vectorsystems may be utilized to express the protein-coding sequence. Theseinclude but are not limited to mammalian cell systems infected withvirus (e.g., vaccinia virus, adenovirus, etc.); insect cell systemsinfected with virus (e.g., baculovirus); microorganisms such as yeastcontaining yeast vectors, or bacteria transformed with bacteriophageDNA, plasmid DNA, or cosmid DNA. The expression elements of thesevectors vary in their strengths and specificities. Depending on thehost-vector system utilized, any one of a number of suitabletranscription and translation elements may be used.

Any of the methods previously described for the insertion of DNAfragments into a vector may be used to construct expression vectorscontaining a chimeric gene consisting of appropriatetranscriptional/translational control signals and the protein codingsequences. These methods may include in vitro recombinant DNA andsynthetic techniques and in vivo recombinations (genetic recombination).Expression of nucleic acid sequence encoding BDNF protein or peptidefragment may be regulated by a second nucleic acid sequence so that BDNFprotein or peptide is expressed in a host transformed with therecombinant DNA moleucle. For example, expression of BDNF may becontrolled by any promoter/enhancer element known in the art. Promoterswhich may be used to control BDNF expression include, but are notlimited to, the SV40 early promoter region (Bernoist and Chambon, 1981,Nature 290:304-310), the promoter contained in the 3' long terminalrepeat of Rous sarcoma virus (Yamamoto, et al., 1980, Cell 22:787-797),the herpes thymidine kinase promoter (Wagner et al., 1981, Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 78:144-1445), the regulatory sequences of themetallothionine gene (Brinster et al., 1982, Nature 296:39-42);prokaryotic expression vectors such as the β-lactamase promoter(Villa-Kamaroff, et al., 1978, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.75:3727-3731), or the tac promoter (DeBoer, et al., 1983, Proc. Natl.Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 80:21-25), see also "Useful proteins from recombinantbacteria" in Scientific American, 1980, 242:74-94; plant expressionvectors comprising the nopaline synthetase promoter region(Herrera-Estrella et al., Nature 303:209-213) or the cauliflower mosaicvirus 35S RNA promoter (Gardner, et al., 1981, Nucl. Acids Res. 9:2871),and the promoter for the photosynthetic enzyme ribulose biphosphatecarboxylase (Herrera-Estrella et al., 1984, Nature 310:115-120);promoter elements from yeast or other fungi such as the Gal 4 promoter,the ADC (alcohol dehydrogenase) promoter, PGK (phosphoglycerol kinase)promoter, alkaline phophatase promoter, and the following animaltranscriptional control regions, which exhibit tissue specificity andhave been utilized in transgenic animals: elastase I gene control regionwhich is active in pancreatic acinar cells (Swift et al., 1984, Cell38:639-646; Ornitz et al., 1986, Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol.50:399-409; MacDonald, 1987, Hepatology 7:425-515); insulin gene controlregion which is active in pancreatic beta cells (Hanahan, 1985, Nature315:115-122), immunoglobulin gene control region which is active inlymphoid cells (Grosschedl et al., 1984, Cell 38:647-658; Adames et al.,1985, Nature 318:533-538; Alexander et al., 1987, Mol. Cell. Biol.7:1436-1444), mouse mammary tumor virus control region which is activein testicular, breast, lymphoid and mast cells (Leder et al., 1986, Cell45:485-495), albumin gene control region which is active in liver(Pinkert et al., 1987, Genes and Devel. 1:268-276), alpha-fetoproteingene control region which is active in liver (Krumlauf et al., 1985,Mol. Cell. Biol. 1639-1648; Hammer et al., 1987, Science 235:53-58);alpha 1-antitrypsin gene control region which is active in the liver(Kelsey et al, 1987, Genes and Devel. 1:161-171), beta-globin genecontrol region which is active in myeloid cells (Mogram et al., 1985,Nature 315:338-340; Kollias et al., 1986, Cell 46:89-94; myelin basicprotein gene control region which is active in oligodendrocyte cells inthe bran (Readhead et al., 1987, Cell 48:703-712); myosin light chain-2gene control region which is active in skeletal muscle (Sani, 1985,Nature 314:283-286), and gonadotropic releasing hormone gene controlregion which is active in the hypothalamus (Mason et al., 1986, Science234:1372-1378).

Expression vectors containing BDNF gene inserts can be identified bythree general approaches: (a) DNA-DNA hybridization, (b) presence orabsence of "marker" gene functions, and (c) expression of insertedsequences. In the first approach, the presence of a foreign geneinserted in expression vector can be detected by DNA-DNA hybridizationusing probes comprising sequences that are homologous to an insertedBDNF gene. In the second approach, the recombinant vector/host systemcan be identified and selected based upon the presence or absence ofcertain "marker" gene functions (e.g.. thymidine kinase activity,resistance to antibiotics, transformation phenotype, occlusion bodyformation in baculovirus, etc.) caused by the insertion of foreign genesin the vector. For example, if the BDNF gene is inserted within themarker gene sequence of the vector, recombinants containing the BDNFinsert can be identified by the absence of the marker gene function. Inthe third approach, recombinant expression vectors can be identified byassaying the foreign gene product expressed by the recombinant. Suchassays can be based, for example, on the physical or functionalproperties of the BDNF gene product in bioassay systems as describedsupra, in Section 5.2.

Once a particular recombinant DNA molecule is identified and isolated,several methods known in the art may be used to propagate it. Once asuitable host system and growth conditions are established, recombinantexpression vectors can be propagated and prepared in quantity Aspreviously explained, the expression vectors which can be used include,but are not limited to, the following vectors or their derivatives:human or animal viruses such as vaccinia virus or adenovirus; insectviruses such as baculovirus; yeast vectors; bacteriophage vectors (e.g.,lambda), and plasmid and cosmid DNA vectors, to name but a few.

In addition, a host cell strain may be chosen which modulates theexpression of the inserted sequences, or modifies and processes the geneproduct in the specific fashion desired. Expression from certainpromoters can be elevated in the presence of certain inducers; thus,expression of the genetically engineered BDNF protein may be controlled.Furthermore, different host cells have characteristic and specificmechanisms for the translational and post-translational processing andmodification (e.g., glycosylation, cleavage) of proteins. Appropriatecell lines or host systems can be chosen to ensure the desiredmodification and processing of the foreign protein expressed. Forexample, expression in a bacterial system can be used to produce anunglycosylated core protein product. Expression in yeast will produce aglycosylated product. Expression in mammalian cells can be used toensure "native" glycosylation of the heterologous BDNF protein.Furthermore, different vector/host expression systems may effectprocessing reactions such as proteolytic cleavages to different extents.

In a specific embodiment of the invention, DNA encoding preproBDNF maybe cloned into pCMV plasmid, amplified, and then used to transfect COScells by the calcium phosphate method (Chen and Okayama, 1987, Mol.Cell. Biol. 7:2745-2752); BDNF activity may then be collected from cellculture medium (see Example Section 10, infra).

5.5.1. Identification and Purification of the Expressed Gene Product

Once a recombinant which expresses the BDNF gene is identified, the geneproduct should be analyzed. This can be achieved by assays based on thephysical or functional properties of the product.

Once the BDNF protein is identified, it may be isolated and purified bystandard methods including chromatography (e.g., ion exchange, affinity,and sizing column chromatography), centrifugation, differentialsolubility, or by any other standard technique for the purification ofproteins. The functional properties may be evaluated using any knownBDNF assay, including, but not limited to, chick embryo dorsal rootganglia, perinatal rat retinal cells, or neural placode-derived neurons.

Importantly, methods used to prepare BDNF from brain tissue, becausethey involve, as a final step, preparative gel electrophoresis, wouldproduce BDNF which was not fully active due to the presence of residualSDS (Barde and Thoenen, 1985, in "Hormones and Cell Regulation," Vol. 9,Dumont et al., eds., Elsevier Science Publishers, pp. 385-390). Incontrast, the present invention permits the isolation of BDNF which isproduced from recombinant nucleic acid molecules and which is free ofSDS and therefore possesses full activity. For example, and not by wayof limitation, the anti-BDNF antibodies of the invention (such asantibody directed toward the B5-33 amino acid fragment of porcine BDNF,described in Section 11, infra) may be used to collect recombinant BDNFby immunoprecipitation or affinity chromatography, thereby producingdetergent-free, fully active BDNF.

In a further embodiment of the invention, prepro BDNF may be convertedto active mature BDNF enzymatically, using, for example, endoproteinaseArg-C (see Example Section 17, infra).

5.6. Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor Genes and Proteins

Using the methods detailed supra and in Example Sections 6 and 9, infra,the following nucleic acid sequences were determined, and theircorresponding amino acid sequences deduced. The porcine BDNF cDNAsequence was determined, and is depicted in FIG. 1. The human cDNA BDNFsequence was determined, and is depicted in FIGS. 4A through 4I whichalso present which also presents DNA sequences from pig, rat, andchicken. Each of these sequences, or their functional equivalents, canbe used in accordance with the invention. Additionally, the inventionrelates to BDNF genes and proteins isolated from porcine, bovine,feline, avian, equine, or canine, as well as primate sources and anyother species in which BDNF activity exists. The invention is furtherdirected to subsequences of BDNF nucleic acids comprising at least tennucleotides, such subsequences comprising hybridizable portions of theBDNF sequence which have use, e.g., in nucleic acid hybridizationassays, Southern and Northern blot analyses, etc. The invention alsoprovides for BDNF protein, and fragments and derivatives thereof,according to the amino acid sequences set forth in FIGS. 1 and 4Athrough 4I on their functional equivalents. The invention also providesfragments or derivatives of BDNF proteins which comprise antigenicdeterminant(s) or which are functionally active. As used herein,functionally active shall mean having positive activity in assays forknown BDNF function, e.g. chick embryo DRG assays.

For example, the nucleic acid sequences depicted in FIGS. 1 and 4 can bealtered by substitutions, additions or deletions that provide forfunctionally equivalent molecules. Due to the degeneracy of nucleotidecoding sequences, other DNA sequences which encode substantially thesame amino acid sequence as depicted in FIGS. 1 and 4A through 4I may beused in the practice of the present invention. These include but are notlimited to nucleotide sequences comprising all or portions of the BDNFgenes depicted in FIGS. 1 and 4A through 4I which are altered by thesubstitution of different codons that encode a functionally equivalentamino acid residue within the sequence, thus producing a silent change.Likewise, the BDNF proteins, or fragments or derivatives thereof, of theinvention include, but are not limited to, those containing, as aprimary amino acid sequence, all or part of the amino acid sequencesubstantially as depicted in FIGS. 1 and 4A through 4I including alteredsequences in which functionally equivalent amino acid residues aresubstituted for residues within the sequence resulting in a silentchange. For example, one or more amino acid residues within the sequencecan be substituted by another amino acid of a similar polarity whichacts as a functional equivalent, resulting in a silent alteration.Substitutes for an amino acid within the sequence may be selected fromother members of the class to which the amino acid belongs. For example,the nonpolar (hydrophobic) amino acids include alanine, leucine,isoleucine, valine, proline, phenylalanine, tryptophan and methionine.The polar neutral amino acids include glycine, serine, threonine,cysteine, tyrosine, asparagine, and glutamine. The positively charged(basic) amino acids include arginine, lysine and histidine. Thenegatively charged (acidic) amino acids include aspartic acid andglutamic acid. Also included within the scope of the invention are BDNFproteins or fragments or derivatives thereof which are differentiallymodified during or after translation, e.g., by glycosylation,proteolytic cleavage, linkage to an antibody molecule or other cellularligand, etc.

Additionally, a given BDNF can be mutated in vitro or in vivo, to createand/or destroy translation, initiation, and/or termination sequences, orto create variations in coding regions and/or form new restrictionendonuclease sites or destroy preexisting ones, to facilitate further invitro modification. Any technique for mutagenesis known in the art canbe used, including but not limited to, in vitro site-directedmutagenesis (Hutchinson, et al., 1978, J. Biol. Chem. 253:6551), use ofTAB® linkers (Pharmacia), etc.

5.7. Generation of Anti-Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor Antibodies

According to the invention, BDNF protein, or fragments or derivativesthereof, may be used as immunogen to generate anti-BDNF antibodies.Previous attempts to produce an anti-BDNF immune response have beenunsuccessful, possibly because of the small quantities of purified BDNFavailable. By providing for the production of relatively abundantamounts of BDNF protein using recombinant techniques for proteinsynthesis (based upon the BDNF nucleic acid sequences of the invention),the problem of insufficient quantities of BDNF has been obviated.

To further improve the likelihood of producing an anti-BDNF immuneresponse, the amino acid sequence of BDNF may be analyzed in order toidentify portions of the molecule which may be associated with increasedimmunogenicity. For example, the amino acid sequence may be subjected tocomputer analysis to identify surface epitopes, according to the methodof Hopp and Woods (1981, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 78:3824-3828)which has been successfully used to identify antigenic peptides ofHepatitis B surface antigen. Alternatively, the deduced amino acidsequences of BDNF from different species could be compared, andrelatively non-homologous regions identified; these non-homologousregions would be more likely to be immunogenic across various species.

For preparation of monoclonal antibodies directed toward BDNF, anytechnique which provides for the production of antibody molecules bycontinuous cell lines in culture may be used. For example, the hybridomatechnique originally developed by Kohler and Milstein (1975, Nature256:495-497), as well as the trioma technique, the human B-cellhybridoma technique (Kozbor et al., 1983, Immunology Today 4:72), andthe EBV-hybridoma technique to produce human monoclonal antibodies (Coleet al., 1985, in "Monoclonal Antibodies and Cancer Therapy," Alan R.Liss, Inc. pp. 77-96) and the like are within the scope of the presentinvention.

The monoclonal antibodies for therapeutic use may be human monoclonalantibodies or chimeric human-mouse (or other species) monoclonalantibodies. Human monoclonal antibodies may be made by any of numeroustechniques known in the art (e.g., Teng et al., 1983, Proc. Natl. Acad.Sci. U.S.A. 80:7308-7312; Kozbor et al., 1983, Immunology Today 4:72-79;Olsson et al., 1982, Meth. Enzymol. 92:3-16). Chimeric antibodymolecules may be prepared containing a mouse antigen-binding domain withhuman constant regions (Morrison et al., 1984, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.U.S.A. 81:6851, Takeda et al., 1985, Nature 314:452).

Various procedures known in the art may be used for the production opolyclonal antibodies to epitopes of BDNF. For the production ofantibody, various host animals can be immunized by injection with BDNFprotein, or fragment or derivative thereof, including but not limited torabbits, mice, rats, etc. Various adjuvants may be used to increase theimmunological response, depending on the host species, and including butnot limited to Freund's (complete and incomplete), mineral gels such asaluminum hydroxide, surface active substances such as lysolecithin,pluronic polyols, polyanions, peptides, oil emulsions, keyhole limpethemocyanins, dinitrophenol, and potentially useful human adjuvants suchas BCG (Bacille Calmette-Guerin) and, Corynebacterium parvum.

A molecular clone of an antibody to a BDNF epitope can be prepared byknown techniques. Recombinant DNA methodology (see e.g., Maniatis etal., 1982, Molecular Cloning, A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring HarborLaboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.) may be used to construct nucleicacid sequences which encode a monoclonal antibody molecule, or antigenbinding region thereof.

Antibody molecules may be purified by known techniques, e.g.,immunoabsorption or immunoaffinity chromatography, chromatographicmethods such as HPLC (high performance liquid chromatography), or acombination thereof, etc.

Antibody fragments which contain the idiotype of the molecule can begenerated by known techniques. For example, such fragments include butare not limited to: the F(ab')₂ fragment which can be produced by pepsindigestion of the antibody molecule; the Fab' fragments which can begenerated by reducing the disulfide bridges of the F(ab')₂ fragment, andthe 2 Fab or Fab fragments which can be generated by treating theantibody molecule with papain and a reducing agent.

Example Section 11 describes the preparation of polyclonal antiseradirected toward the B5-33 peptide fragment of BDNF protein.

5.8. Identification of Additional Members of the BDNF/NGF Gene Family

Sequence analysis of the gene encoding BDNF and deduction of its aminoacid sequence revealed that this protein has many structuralsimilarities to NGF (FIG. 2). The primary sequence of mature BDNF, aswell as the general structure and probable mode of processing from aprecursor protein, suggest strongly that the NGF and BDNF genes may haveevolved from a common ancestral gene. Within the region of the maturepolypeptides, if only three gaps are introduced in the NGF sequences tooptimize matching, a total of 51 amino acid identities are common to thepreviously known NGFs from many species and to procine and human BDNF.These identities include all six cysteine residues, suggesting that theNGFs and BDNF share very similar secondary structure. Furthermore, foursegments of six or more amino acids can be seen in which NGFs from allof the species listed above and from porcine BDNF are either identical,or differ by no more than about one conservative amino acidsubstitution. Thus, it is reasonable to conclude that NGF and BDNFappear to be closely related members of a gene family.

A rational search for additional members of the BDNF/NGF gene family maybe carried out using an approach that takes advantage of theunanticipated existence of the conserved segments of strong homologybetween NGF and BDNF. For example, additional members of the BDNF genefamily may be identified by selecting, from among a diversity of nucleicacid sequences, those sequences that are homologous to BDNF and NGF, andfurther identifying, from among the selected sequences, those that alsocontain nucleic acid sequences which are non-homologous to NGF and BDNF.The term "non-homologous" may be construed to mean a region whichcontains at least about 6 contiguous nucleotides in which at least abouttwo nucleotides differ from NGF and BDNF sequence.

A preferred embodiment of the invention provides the following method.Corresponding to each of the four conserved segments ("boxes") describedabove and set forth in Table III, infra, sets of degenerateoligonucleotide probes of at least 18 nucleotides may be synthesized,representing all of the possible coding sequences for the amino acidsfound in either NGF or BDNF over six contiguous codons. Numbering withrespect to the amino terminus of the mature polypeptides (so that His134of preproBDNF is treated as His1 in the mature protein), the four boxesmay be characterized as follows (numbered relative to human matureproteins; DNA sequence as depicted in FIG. 1).

                  TABLE III                                                       ______________________________________                                                             DNA Sequence                                             ______________________________________                                        Box 1:   NGF      Gly10--Ser19                                                         BDNF     Gly8--Ser17  587-616                                        Box 2:   NGF      Lys50--Cys58                                                         BDNF     Lys50--Cys58 713-739                                        Box 3:   NGF      Gly67--Asp72                                                         BDNF     Gly67--Asp72 764-781                                        Box 4:   NGF      Trp99--Cys110                                                        BDNF     Trp100--Cys111                                                                             863-898                                        ______________________________________                                    

Synthetic oligonucleotides derived from sequence pairs from the boxesset forth in Table III may be utilized as primers to amplify by PCRsequences from a source (RNA or DNA) of potential interest. This mightinclude mRNA or cDNA or genomic DNA from any eukaryotic species thatcould express a polypeptide closely related to BDNF or NGF. By carryingout as few as six PCR reactions (namely: a primer from Box 1 with aprimer from Box 2; Box 1 with Box 3; Box with Box 4; Box 2 with Box 3;Box 2 with Box 4; Box 3 with Box 4), it may be possible to detect a geneor gene product sharing any two of the four above segments of conservedsequence between NGF and BDNF. If one chooses to synthesize severaldifferent degenerate primers for each box, it may still be possible tocarry out a complete search with a reasonably small number of PCRreactions. It is also possible to vary the stringency of hybridizationconditions used in priming the PCR reactions, to allow for greater orlesser degrees of nucleotide sequence similarity between the unknowngene and NGF or BDNF. If a segment of a previously unknown member of theBDNF/NGF gene family is amplified successfully, that segment may bemolecularly cloned and sequenced, and utilized as a probe to isolate acomplete cDNA or genomic clone. This, in turn, will permit thedetermination of the unknown gene's complete nucleotide sequence, theanalysis of its expression, and the production of its protein productfor functional analysis.

The approach described above has been used to identify a novel generelated to both BDNF and NGF, and described in Example Section 13,infra.

In addition, the present invention provides for the use of the BDNF/NGFsequence homologies in the design of novel recombinant molecules whichare members of the BDNF/NGF gene family but which may not occur innature. For example, and not by way of limitation, a recombinantmolecule can be constructed according to the invention, comprisingportions of both NGF and BDNF genes. Such a molecule could exhibitproperties associated with both BDNF and NGF and portray a novel profileof biological activities, including agonists as well as antagonists.Primary sequence of BDNF and NGF may also be used to predict tertiarystructure of the molecules using computer simulation (Hopp and Woods,1981, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 78:3824-3828); BDNF/ NGF chimericrecombinant genes could be designed in light of correlations betweentertiary structure and biological function. Likewise, chimeric genescomprising portions of any one or more members of BDNF/NGF gene family,including the novel member described in Section 13 may be constructed.

5.9. Utility of the Invention

The present invention relates to the nucleic acid sequence of BDNF andto the substantially pure protein, peptide fragments, or derivativesproduced therefrom. BDNF may be produced, for the first time, inquantities sufficient for diagnostic and therapeutic applications.Likewise, anti-BDNF antibodies, also available for the first time as aconsequence of the invention, and BDNF nucleic acid probes, may beutilized in diagnostic and therapeutic applications. For most purposes,it is preferable to use BDNF genes or gene products from the samespecies for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes, although cross-speciesutility of BDNF may be useful in specific embodiments of the invention.

5.9.1. Diagnostic Applications

The present invention, which relates to nucleic acids encoding BDNF andto proteins, peptide fragments, or derivatives produced therefrom, aswell as antibodies directed against BDNF protein, peptides, orderivatives, may be utilized to diagnose diseases and disorders of thenervous system which may be associated with alterations in the patternof BDNF expression.

In various embodiments of the invention, BDNF genes and related nucleicacid sequences and subsequences, including complementary sequences, maybe used in diagnostic hybridization assays. The BDNF nucleic acidsequences, or subsequences thereof comprising about 15 nucleotides, canbe used as hybridization probes. Hybridization assays can be used todetect, prognose, diagnose, or monitor conditions, disorders, or diseasestates associated with changes in BDNF expression, including, inparticular, conditions resulting in sensory neuron damage anddegeneration of retinal neurons. Such diseases and conditions includebut are not limited to CNS trauma, infarction, infection, degenerativenerve disease, malignancy, or post-operative changes including but notlimited to Alzheimer's Disease, Parkinson's Disease, Huntington'sChorea, and degenerative diseases of the retina. For example, total RNAin a tissue sample from a patient can be assayed for the presence ofBDNF mRNA, wherein the decrease in the amount of BDNF mRNA is indicativeof neuronal degeneration. Relatively high levels of BDNF mRNA have beenidentified in neuroblastoma tumor cells (see Section 14, infra, fordetails); accordingly, in a specific embodiment of the invention,detection of increased levels of mRNA using BDNF nucleic acid probes canbe utilized to diagnose neuroblastoma tumor. The extremely low levels ofBDNF synthesized by most tissues render BDNF mRNA a particularly usefultumor marker.

In alternate embodiments of the invention, antibodies directed towardBDNF protein, peptide fragments, or derivatives can be used to diagnosediseases and disorders of the nervous system, including, in particular,sensory disorders and degenerative diseases of the retina, as well asthose disorders and diseases listed supra. The antibodies of theinvention can be used, for example, in in situ hybridization techniquesusing tissue samples obtained from a patient in need of such evaluation.In a further example, the antibodies of the invention can be used inELISA procedures to detect and/or measure amounts of BDNF present intissue or fluid samples; similarly, the antibodies of the invention canbe used in Western blot analysis to detect and/or measure BDNF presentin tissue or fluid samples. An antibody of the invention which binds toBDNF in ELISA and Western blots is described in Section 11, infra.

In further embodiments of the invention, BDNF protein, peptide fragmentsor derivatives can be used to diagnose diseases and disorders of thenervous system. In a particular embodiment and not by way of limitation,labeled BDNF protein or peptide fragments can be used to identifytissues or cells which express the BDNF receptor in order to identifyaberrancies of BDNF receptor expression and consequently, potentialabnormalities in the tissue or cellular response to BDNF.

5.9.2. Therapeutic Applications

The present invention, which relates to nucleic acids encoding BDNF, andto proteins, peptide fragments, or derivatives produced therefrom, aswell as to antibodies directed against BDNF protein, peptides, orderivatives, may be utilized to treat diseases and disorders of thenervous system which may be associated with alterations in the patternof BDNF expression or which may benefit from exposure to BDNF oranti-BDNF antibodies.

In various embodiments of the invention, BDNF protein, peptide fragmentsor derivatives can be administered to patients in whom the nervoussystem has been damaged by trauma, surgery, ischemia, infection,metabolic disease, nutritional deficiency, malignancy, or toxic agents.The invention in particular can be used to treat conditions in whichdamage has occurred to sensory neurons or retinal ganglion cells byadministering effective therapeutic amounts of BDNF protein or peptidefragments or derivatives. In various specific embodiments of theinvention, BDNF can be locally administered to sensory neurons whichhave been severed, including, but not limited to, neurons in dorsal rootganglia or in any of the following tissues: the geniculate, petrosal,and nodose ganglia; the vestibuloacoustic complex of the VIIIth cranialnerve; the ventrolateral pole of the maxillo-mandibular lobe of thetrigeminal ganglion; and the mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus. It may bedesirable to administer the BDNF-related peptides or BDNF protein byadsorption onto a membrane, e.g. a silastic membrane, that could beimplanted in the proximity of the severed nerve. The present inventioncan also be used for example in hastening the recovery of patientssuffering from diabetic neuropathies, e.g. mononeuropathy multiplex. Infurther embodiments of the invention, BDNF protein or peptide fragmentsor derivatives derived therefrom, can be used to treat congenitalconditions or neurodegenerative disorders, including, but not limitedto, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Parkinson-Plus syndromes(in which Parkinsonian symptoms result from degeneration of dopaminergicneurons), such as Progressive Supranuclear Palsy(Steele-Richardson-Olszewski Syndrome), Olivopontocerebellar Atrophy(OPCA), Shy-Drager Syndrome (multiple systems atrophy), and GuamanianParkinsonism dementia complex, and Huntington's chorea; in particular,the invention can be used to treat congenital or neurodegenerativedisorders associated with sensory nerve dysfunction and degenerativediseases of the retina. For example, the BDNF protein, or peptidefragments, or derivatives of the invention can be used in the treatmentof hereditary spastic paraplegia with retinal degeneration (Kjellin andBarnard-Scholz syndromes), retinitis pigmentosa, Stargardt disease,Usher syndrome (retinitis pigmentosa with congenital hearing loss), andRefsum syndrome (retinitis pigmentosa, hereditary hearing loss, andpolyneuropathy), to name but a few. It is possible that a defect in BDNFsynthesis or responsiveness may be the underlying etiology for syndromescharacterized by a combination of retinal degeneration and other sensorydysfunction.

In a specific embodiment of the invention, administration of BDNFprotein, or peptide fragments or derivatives derived therefrom, can beused in conjunction with surgical implantation of tissue in thetreatment of Alzheimer's disease and/or Parkinson's disease. Asdiscussed in Sections 12 and 18, infra, BDNF may be used to promote thesurvival of dopaminergic substantia nigra neurons in a dose-dependentmanner (FIGS. 33A through 33C), supporting the use of BDNF in thetreatment of disorders of CNS dopaminergic neurons, including, but notlimited to, Parkinson's disease [particularly in light of data presentedin Section 21, infra, which shows that BDNF may be used to preventneurotoxicity caused by MPP, a toxin which is associated with theinduction of a Parkinson's disease-like syndrome]. In addition, BDNF hasbeen observed to sustain the survival of CNS cholinergic neurons(Sections 12 and 16, infra) and, in particular, basal forebraincholinergic neurons, indicating that BDNF may be useful in the treatmentof disorders involving cholinergic neurons, including, but not limitedto, Alzheimer's disease. It has been shown that approximately 35 percent of patients with Parkinson's disease suffer from Alzheimer-typedementia; BDNF produced according to the invention may prove to beuseful single agent therapy for this disease complex. Similarly, BDNFproduced according to the invention may be used therapeutically to treatAlzheimer's disease in conjunction with Down's Syndrome. BDNF producedaccording to the invention can be used in the treatment of a variety ofdementias as well as congenital learning disorders. It has also beenfound that BDNF appears to suppress the proliferation of astroglialcells, supporting the use of BDNF for diminishing scar formation in theCNS (for example, following surgery, trauma, or infarct) as well as theuse of BDNF in the treatment of astroglial derived CNS tumors. In yetanother embodiment of the invention, BDNF may be used to upregulate theexpression of NGF receptor, and thereby may be advantageouslyadministered prior to or concurrently with NGF to a patient in need ofsuch treatment.

As exemplified in Section 15, infra, administration of kainic acid maybe used to induce an increase in BDNF expression (and, to a lesserextent, NGF expression) in neurons, including hippocampal as well ascortical neurons. It has been observed (Section 15, infra) thatinhibition of non-NMDA receptors blocked this kainic acid-mediatedincrease in BDNF expression. Accordingly, expression of BDNF and BDNFrelated peptides of the invention may be induced in vitro or in vivo bythe administration of kainic acid or related compounds or carbachol,histamine, or bradykinin, or related compounds thereof, which are foundto have similar effects in vitro or in vivo or by agonists of non-NMDAglutamate receptors or other drugs which augment or mimic the action ofacethycholine, histamine, or bradykinin. Induction of NGF expression mayalso be accomplished by administering kainic acid or related moleculesor agonists of non-NMDA receptors.

In further embodiments of the invention, BDNF protein, fragments orderivatives can be used in conjunction with other cytokines to achieve adesired neurotrophic effect. For example, and not by way of limitation,according to the invention BDNF can be used together with NGF or withskeletal muscle extract to achieve a synergistic stimulatory effect ongrowth of sensory neurons wherein synergistic is construed to mean thatthe effect of the combination of BDNF protein, peptide fragment, orderivative and a second agent achieves an effect greater than the sameamount of either substance used individually. It is envisioned that BDNFmay function synergistically with other CNS-derived peptide factors yetto be fully characterized, in the growth, development, and survival of awide array of neuronal subpopulations in the central nervous system.

It is further envisioned that, based on the full characterization of theBDNF molecule, novel peptide fragments, derivatives, or mutants of BDNFmay be developed which are capable of acting as antagonists of some, orall of the biological functions of BDNF. Such BDNF antagonists may beuseful in the selective ablation of sensory neurons, for example, in thetreatment of chronic pain syndromes.

In still further embodiments of the invention, antibodies directedtoward BDNF protein, or peptide fragments or derivatives thereof, can beadministered to patients suffering from a variety of neurologicdisorders and diseases and who are in need of such treatment. Forexample, patients who suffer from excessive production of BDNF may be inneed of such treatment. Anti-BDNF antibodies can be used in preventionof aberrant regeneration of sensory neurons (e.g. post-operatively), or,as discussed supra, in the treatment of chronic pain syndromes. In lightof the high levels of BDNF mRNA found in neuroblastoma tissue, it ispossible that BDNF serves as an autocrine tumor growth factor forneuroblastoma; accordingly, anti-BDNF antibodies can be administeredtherapeutically to achieve tumor regression in a specific embodiment ofthe invention.

5.10. Pharmaceutical Compositions

The active compositions of the invention, which may comprise all orportions of the BDNF gene product, including protein, peptide fragmentsor derivatives produced therefrom, or antibodies (or antibody fragments)directed toward BDNF protein, peptide fragments, or derivatives, or acombination of BDNF and a second agent, such as NGF or skeletal muscleextract, may be administered in any sterile biocompatible pharmaceuticalcarrier, including, but not limited to, saline, buffered saline,dextrose, and water.

BDNF protein, peptide fragment or derivative may comprise an amino acidsequence or subsequence thereof substantially as depicted in FIGS. 4Athrough 4I it may be preferable to use BDNF protein comprising, inparticular, all or a portion of the amino acid sequence from about aminoacid 134 to about amino acid 252, as depicted in FIG. 1, or afunctionally equivalent sequence, as this substance is believed tocomprise the functional portion of the BDNF molecule. BDNF may bederived from sequences corresponding to the BDNF genes of any suitablespecies, including, but not limited to, human, pig, rat, chicken, cow,dog, sheep, goat, cat, rabbit, etc.

The amount of BDNF protein, peptide fragment, derivative, or antibodywhich will be effective in the treatment of a particular disorder orcondition will depend on the nature of the disorder or condition, andcan be determined by standard clinical techniques. Where possible, it isdesirable to determine the dose-response curve and the pharmaceuticalcompositions of the invention first in vitro, e.g. in the BDNF bioassaysystems described supra, and then in useful animal model systems priorto testing in humans. Based on in vitro data, in a specific embodimentof the invention, a pharmaceutical composition effective in promotingthe survival of sensory neurons may provide a local BDNF proteinconcentration of between about 5 and 25 ng/ml, and, preferably, between10 and 20 ng/ml of BDNF. In an additional specific embodiment of theinvention, a pharmaceutical composition effective in promoting thegrowth and survival of dopaminergic or cholinergic neurons may provide alocal BDNF protein concentration of between about 10 ng/ml and 100ng/ml.

Methods of introduction include but are not limited to intradermal,intramuscular, intraperitoneal, intravenous, subcutaneous, oral, andintranasal. In addition, it may be desirable to introduce thepharmaceutical compositions of the invention into the central nervoussystem by any suitable route, including intraventricular and intrathecalinjection; intraventricular injection may be facilitated by anintraventricular catheter, for example, attached to a reservoir, such asan Ommaya reservoir.

Further, it may be desirable to administer the pharmaceuticalcompositions of the invention locally to the area in need of treatment;this may be achieved by, for example, and not by way of limitation,local infusion during surgery, by injection, by means of a catheter, orby means of an implant, said implant being of a porous, non-porous, orgelatinous material, including membranes, such as sialastic membranes,or fibers.

The invention also provides for pharmaceutical compositions comprisingBDNF proteins, peptide fragments, or derivatives administered vialiposomes, microparticles, or microcapsules. In various embodiments ofthe invention, it may be useful to use such compositions to achievesustained release of BDNF and BDNF-related products.

It is envisioned that it may be possible to introduce cells activelyproducing BDNF, BDNF related substances, BDNF antagonists, or anti-BDNFantibodies into areas in need of increased or decreased concentrationsof BDNF.

6. EXAMPLE: MOLECULAR CLONING AND CHARACTERIZATION OF PORCINE BRAINDERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR cDNA

The extreme rarity of BDNF protein in tissues precluded the use ofstandard strategies toward cloning the BDNF gene. Instead, a limitedamount of protein sequence data was expanded, utilizing DNAamplification technology, as follows:

(i) Microgram quantities of BDNF were purified from kilogram quantitiesof porcine brain.

(ii) Purified BDNF was analyzed by protein microsequencing techniques,and the amino acid sequence of a stretch of 36 amino acid residues wasdetermined.

(iii) Based on the amino acid sequence determined in (ii),oligonucleotides were synthesized and then used as primers in polymerasechain reaction, using porcine superior colliculus cDNA as template inorder to amplify DNA encoding the defined amino acid fragment.

(iv) The DNA reaction product of (iii) was sequenced, and

(v) Corresponding oligonucleotide primers were synthesized and utilizedin polymerase chain reaction with porcine superior colliculus cDNA togenerate overlapping fragments of DNA representing BDNF mRNA upstream aswell as downstream of sequences encoding the original 36 amino acidfragment. Thus, the complete coding region for porcine BDNF wasmolecularly cloned in two overlapping fragments.

The details of each of these steps, as well as further characterizationof the BDNF gene, are set forth below.

6.1. Materials and Methods 6.1.1. Purification of BDNF From PorcineBrain

Purification of BDNF from porcine brain was performed by the procedureessentially as set forth in Hofer and Barde (1988, Nature 331:261-262).

Six kg of pig brain was homogenized with an Ultra-Turrax homogenizer in0.2M sodium phosphate buffer, pH 6.0, containing 1 mM EDTA and freshlyadded phenylmethanesulphonyl fluoride (1 mM) at a ratio of 1 kg of brainto 2 liters of buffer. The pH of the supernatant was brought to pH 4.0with 1 N HCl and stirred for 2 hr at 4° C. After centrifugation for 25min at 20,000×g the combined supernatants (adjusted to pH 6.0 with 1NNaOH), corresponding to 3 kg of brain, were stirred for 2 hr with literof preswollen carboxy-methyl-cellulose which had been equilibrated with0.1M sodium phosphate, pH 6.0. After two washes with a total of 20 literof 0.1M sodium phosphate, pH 6.0, the slurry was poured into a columnand washed overnight in the same buffer containing 0.13M NaCl. Activefractions were eluted with phosphate buffer containing 0.5M NaCl andsubsequently dialyzed against 2×5 liter of 5 mM potassium phosphate, pH6.8. The dialyzed fractions resulting from processing 2×3 kg of startingmaterial were applied to a 130 ml bed volume hydroxyapatite column whichhad been previously equilibrated with 5 mM potassium phosphate, pH 6.8.The column was then eluted with a linear gradient composed of 500 ml of5 mM and 500 ml of 700 mM potassium phosphate, both pH 6.8, whereby theBDNF activity was eluted at approximately 500 mM potassium phosphate(see Barde et al., 1982, EMBO J. 1:549-553). By addition of 1.0Mpotassium phosphate, the pooled active fractions were adjusted to afinal molarity of 700 mM potassium phosphate and applied to a 5 mlphenyl-sepharose column equilibrated with 700 mM potassium phosphate, pH6.8. After washing with 40 ml of the same buffer, BDNF activity waseluted with 0.1M potassium phosphate, pH 6.8 dialyzed against distilledwater, and lyophilized. The lyophilized material was taken up in anSDS-gel electrophoresis sample buffer containing 0.1% SDS and nomercaptoethanol as described in Barde et al. (1982, EMBO J., 1:549-553),before being applied to an SDS-gel comprised of a linear (rather thanexponential) gradient of 10-25% acrylamide. After completion ofelectrophoretic separation, the gel was briefly stained (10 min) withCoomassie blue, destained for 20 min, and a band migrating at the levelof cytochrome c was cut out and electrophoretically eluted from the gel.SDS was removed as described Barde et al. (1982, EMBO J., 1:549-553).The purification procedure that eventually led to the microsequencing ofBDNF was modified (according to Hofer and Barde, 1988, Nature331:261-262) and does not make use of gel electrophoresis as the laststep of purification.

6.1.2. Protein Sequencing

BDNF was either sequenced directly (55 pmole as determined by amino acidanalysis, with an initial yield of 40 pmole for the amino terminalhistidine) or cleaved as follows: 5 to 10 μg BDNF (from 5 differentpreparations) were cleaved according to the following procedures. V8:1μg S. aureus V8 (Miles) was added to 5 μg BDNF in 0.2M NH₄ CO₃, pH 8.0containing 10% acetonitrile (total volume: 50 μl) and incubatedovernight at room temperature. Trypsin: 1 μg TPCK-treated trypsin(bovine pancreas, Sigma Type XIII) was added to 8 μg BDNF in Tris-HCl(0.1M, pH 8.0) containing 10 mM CaCl₂ (total volume: 40 μl) andincubated overnight at 37° C. Cyanogen bromide (CNBr): 10 μg BDNF wereincubated for 3 hours at room temperature (total volume: 60 μl) with 10%(w/v) CNBr in 70 % (v/v) formic acid (final concentrations). Afteraddition of 500 μl H₂ O at the end of the reaction, the sample wasconcentrated to 50 μl in a speed-vac. 50 μl Tris-HCl (1.0M, pH 8.0) wereadded together with 5 μl β-mercaptoethanol and the sample was incubatedovernight at 37° C. After addition of 5 μl iodomethane, the sample wasevaporated to dryness on a speed-vac. Reduction and alkylation of BDNFafter CNBr cleavage were found to be necessary: no fragments wereobtained without reduction, as revealed by HPLC and Swank-MunkresSDS-gel electrophoresis (Swank and Munkres, 1971, Anal. Biochem.39:462-477). This indicates that disulfide bridges are present in BDNF,and arranged in such a way that none of the cleavages can give rise tofree peptides. After all cleavages, the dried samples were resuspendedin 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) and applied onto a reverse phase C8microbore HPLC column (Applied Biosystems) and the peptides eluted at0.1 ml/min, using a 60 min linear gradient of 0-60% acetonitrile in 0.1%TFA. Detection was at 214 nm with a Waters 441 UV detector. The peptideswere sequenced by automated Edman degradation on a gas phasemicrosequencer (model 470A Applied Biosystems), according to Hewick(1981, J. Biol. Chem. 256:7990-7997) and Hunkapillar (1983, MethodsEnzymol. 91:227-236). Detection of the PTH amino acids was as describedby Lottspeich (1985, J. Chromatogr. 326:321-327).

6.1.3. Preparation of DNA Templates

Pig genomic DNA was isolated according to the method of Herrmann andFrischauf (1987, Methods Enzymol. 152:180-183).

For preparation of cDNA, total RNA was obtained from a 6 gram sample ofsuperior colliculus of pig brain. The tissue specimen was obtained,dissected and frozen in liquid nitrogen at a local slaughterhouse.Standard methods (Okayama et al., 1987, Methods Enzymol. 154:3-28) wereutilized to extract the RNA. Eighty μg total RNA was transcribed withthe reverse transcriptase of the Moloney murine leukemia virus (BRL,according to the manufacturer's instructions except for the addition of1 μl RNasin and the omission of actinomycin D), using the primer mixtureCGGATCCGAATTCTGCAGTTTTTTTTTTTT with A, C or G as terminal 3';0nucleotide (oligo3, designed to match a 3' poly-A stretch and containingrecognition sites for BamHI, EcoRI and PstI).

6.1.4. Polymerase Chain Reaction

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed according to the methoddescribed in Saiki et al., (1985, Science 230:1350-1354).

6.2. Results and Discussion 6.2.1. Results of Protein Microsequencing

The results of protein microsequencing are presented in Table IV.

                  TABLE IV                                                        ______________________________________                                        EXPERIMENTALLY DETERMINED                                                     PEPTIDE SEQUENCE OF BDNF                                                      ______________________________________                                        N-terminal      HSDPARRGELSV                                                  V8              XVTAADKKTAVD                                                  V8              KVPVSKGQLKQYFYE                                               CNBr            XGGTVTVLEKVP(V) (S)                                           CNBr            GYTKEGXRGIXRGI                                                Trypsin         (T)AVDMSGGTVTVLEK                                             Trypsin         ALTMDSK                                                       Combined sequence                                                              ##STR1##                                                                     underlined amino acids represent sequences encoded by                         oligonucleotide primers used in PCR; see Section 6.1.2.                       ______________________________________                                    

Four contiguous segments of amino acid sequences were determined usingEdman degradation, which could, in turn, be used to deduce a sequence of36 amino acids representing approximately one-third of the entire aminoacid sequence.

6.2.2. Synthesis of Oligonucleotides and Use of PCR to Obtain DNAEncoding an Amino Acid Fragment

Two fully degenerate 17-mer oligonucleotide primers were chemicallysynthesized, based on the coding sequences for segments of six aminoacids near the amino-terminal and carboxyl-terminal ends, respectively,of the 36 amino acid residue fragment described in Section 6.2.1.,supra. In particular, two separate mixtures of 17-mer oligonucleotides(corresponding to all possible codons and designated oligo1 and oligo2)based on the sequence AADKKT (sense) and KQYFYE (antisense) (underlinedin Table III) were chemically synthesized, and 150 pmole of each primerwere added to 1 μg pig genomic DNA template. Thirty-Five amplificationcycles were performed using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)according to the instructions of the manufacturers (GeneAmp™,Perkin-Elmer Cetus). Denaturation was at 94° C. for one minute, primerannealing at 45° C. for 2 min. and primer extension at 72° C. for 2 min.A DNA band of the predicted size (101 bp) was cut out from a 3% agarosegel (stained with ethidium bromide) and asymmetrically amplified asdescribed by Innis et al. (1988, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.85:9436-9440) with a 100-fold excess of either oligo1 or oligo2.

6.2.3. Nucleotide Sequence of cDNA Fragment

The resulting sense and antisense DNA fragments were sequenced by thedideoxynucleotide chain termination method (Sanger et al., 1979, Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 72:3918-3921) using the ³² P end-labelledoligonucleotides 1 and 2 as primers. The observed nucleotide sequencecontained only one open reading frame uninterrupted by a chaintermination codon. The deduced amino acid sequence for this open readingframe was completely consistent with the actual amino acid sequencedetermined for this region of porcine BDNF.

6.2.4. Cloning of the Entire Porcine BDNF cDNA

The complete coding region for porcine BDNF was molecularly cloned intwo overlapping segments. In order to obtain the 3' portion (relative tothe sense strand) of the BDNF cDNA, a 30-mer oligonucleotide primercontaining 21 bases of exact sense strand BDNF sequence, from within theregion described above, was synthesized to serve as a "sense primer".The nucleotide sequence of this primer was oligo 4'(5')AAACTAGTCGACGGCAGTGGACATGTCGGG(3') [underlining indicates thesequence corresponding to sense strand of BDNF, from positions 643 to663 on FIG. 1, encoding the amino acid sequenceThr-Ala-Val-Asp-Met-Ser-Gly Gly (first two bases of Gly codon)]. Theadditional 9 nucleotides at the 5' end of this primer were included toprovide convenient restriction endonuclease cleavage sites for Spe I andSal I for use in molecular cloning. A three-fold degenerate 31-meroligonucleotide primer was designed to be complementary to a stretch ofpoly-A preceded by any nucleotide (T, G, or C) on the sense strand ofcDNA, and to contain recognition sites for the restriction endonucleasesBamHI, EcoRI, and PstI. The sequence of this "antisense" primer (oligo3) was (5')CGGATCCGAATTCTGCAGTTTTTTTTTTTTX(3'), where X=A, C, or G. Thesynthetic oligonucleotide primers were utilized to amplify sequencesfrom the porcine superior colliculus cDNA preparation described above,by PCR. Specifically, the 3' amplified DNA was obtained by using 10 μlof the reverse transcription reaction, 150 pmole of the sense primer(oligo 4) and 150 pmole of oligo3 as antisense primer in a PCR reaction.A Southern blot analysis was performed on the amplified DNA products andthe band giving a hybridization signal with the ³² P-end-labelledoligonucleotide AAGGATCCTGCAGTTGGCCTTTCGAGACGG (oligo5, used asantisense primer in the 5' reaction described below and containingrecognition sequences for BamHI and PstI) was cut out, extracted by theglassmilk method (gene clean™) digested with EcoRI and SalI, cloned intoa Bluescript SK⁺ plasmid (Stratagene) and sequenced.

In order to obtain the remainder (upstream or 5' portion) of the BDNFcoding sequence, cDNA was prepared as described above, and poly-A tailswere added at the 5' ends using terminal deoxynucleotide transferase.The same mixture of three 31-mer oligonucleotides each containing astretch of 12 consecutive T residues, described above, was used to givea primer complementary to these added poly-A tails. A unique 30-meroligonucleotide primer containing 17 bases corresponding to thecomplementary strand of the BDNF coding sequence, and with recognitionsites for restriction endonucleases BamHI and PstI was synthesized. Thesequence of this primer was (5')AAGGATCCTGCAGTTGGCCTTTCGAGACGG(3')(oligo5, supra; underlining indicates the region complementary to thesense strand of the coding sequence of BDNF, from positions 709 to 693on FIG. 1); this corresponds to the segment encoding the amino acidsequence Pro(last two bases of codon)-Val-Ser-Lys-Gly-Gln. The primerswere added to the poly-A-tailed cDNA, and amplification by PCR wascarried out as above. The reaction products were cut with PstI andcloned into Bluescript vector and the nucleotide sequence was determinedby the dideoxynucleotide chain termination method.

6.2.5. Nucleotide Sequence of Porcine BDNF cDNA

The combined nucleotide sequence determined from the overlapping porcineBDNF cDNA clones is shown in FIG. 1 together with the deduced amino acidsequence. The sequence comprises an open reading frame for a polypeptideof 252 amino acids. The identification of the initiator Met codon (ATG)is based on the presence of two adjacent chain termination codons(TAG-TGA) in the same reading frame, beginning 36 base-pairs upstream.The amino terminus of porcine BDNF, determined by direct sequenceanalysis on purified protein corresponds to residue His134 of thispolypeptide. Thus, the sequencing data show that mature BDNF is derivedby processing from a precursor polypeptide. The residue His134 ispreceded immediately by the sequence Arg-Val-Arg-Arg. Such sequences ofone basic amino acid residue followed by a neutral residue and then twomore basic residues have been implicated as target sites for proteolyticprocessing of precursor polypeptides. The deduced amino acid sequence ofmature BDNF predicts a protein of 119 amino acids (molecular weight13,511 daltons) with basic charge (pI=9.99), properties consistent withprevious characterization of BDNF by evaluation of biologically activefactor after fractionation by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. Theamino acid sequence of portions of BDNF determined by proteinmicrosequencing (a total of 64 amino acid residues) is in completeagreement with the amino acid sequence deduced from the nucleotidesequence of cDNA clones (underlined in FIG. 1). The sequence of theprecursor polypeptide is consistent with processing of BDNF in at leasttwo steps: first, a signal peptide of perhaps 18 residues would becleaved from the amino terminus, followed by cleavage between Arg133 andHis134 to liberate the mature polypeptide. If this model is correct,then the precursor could be designated preproBDNF.

7. EXAMPLE: BDNF GENE IS DISTINCT FROM THE NGF GENE IN DIVERSEVERTEBRATE SPECIES 7.1. Materials and Methods 7.1.1. Preparation of NGFand BDNF DNA Probes

A plasmid containing a synthetic gene encoding mature human NGF,incorporating the normal human NGF coding sequence with a fewconservative codon substitutions to introduce convenient restrictionendonuclease cleavage sites, was purchased from British BiotechnologiesLimited. A pair of 18-mer oligonucleotide primers were synthesized topermit amplification of a 270 base pair segment of this gene,corresponding to the coding region for amino acid residues 9 to 111, byPCR. In order to obtain a labeled DNA probe, a PCR reaction of 10 cycleswas carried out with ³² P-dCTP. A BDNF probe was obtained by similarprocedures, except that amplification was carried out using porcinegenomic DNA as the original template, and the segment amplifiedcorresponded to the coding region for amino acids 28 to 111 of matureBDNF. A complementary strand ("antisense") primer corresponding to theregion of amino acids 106 to 111 was synthesized, and had the sequence5')ACATACACAGGAAGTGTC(3'). A sense strand oligonucleotide primer wasprepared for the region of amino acid residues 28-33[(5')GCAGTGGACATGTCGGGT(3')]. Southern blot hybridization (Southern,1975, J. Mol. Biol. 98:503-517) with these two probes was carried outunder stringent conditions in 2×SSC at 68° C.

7.1.2. Sequencing of BDNF Genes from Various Species

The same two 18-mer oligonucleotides bracketing the coding region foramino acids 28 to 111 of mature porcine BDNF, described above, were usedas primers to amplify, under standard PCR conditions, 252 base pairsegments of genomic DNA of pig, rat, chicken, and human, and theresulting DNA reaction products were sequenced by the dideoxynucleotidechain termination method (Sanger et al., 1979, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.U.S.A. 72:3918-3921). In some cases the band of amplified DNA was cutout and extracted after agarose gel electrophoresis, and reamplifiedprior to sequencing. In other cases reamplification was not essential.

7.2. Results and Discussion

Prior to the instant invention, BDNF protein had been purified only frompig. It was of paramount importance to demonstrate unequivocally thatBDNF is not simply the porcine nerve growth factor beta subunit(beta-NGF, or simply referred to herein as NGF), the purification andmolecular cloning of which has not been reported to date. This wasespecially critical because the previously reported physical propertiesof porcine BDNF are virtually identical to those of the β-NGF monomerfrom a variety of species. The lack of a neutralizing antibody againstporcine BDNF, and the previous lack of amino acid or nucleotide sequenceinformation on porcine BDNF made it impossible to determine the exactrelationship between BDNF and NGF. It was conceivable that the observeddifferences in biological activity between BDNF and NGF might, forexample, simply reflect differences in NGF between pig and certain otherspecies (e.g. mouse), or might result from differential modification ofthe NGF protein molecule in different tissues (e.g. pig brain versusmouse salivary gland), or from modifications inadvertently introducedinto the protein at some step(s) during purification from pig brain.

If BDNF were found to be clearly distinct from NGF, it was of greatinterest to determine whether the BDNF gene is present in other species,notably man. Prior to the instant invention, no information wasavailable concerning this point, because BDNF was purified from only onespecies. The presence of neurotrophic activity apparently distinct fromNGF in a variety of crude extracts and conditioned media did not implythe existence of a substance identical or substantially equivalent toporcine BDNF.

Comparison of the predicted amino acid sequence of porcine BDNF with theknown sequences of NGF from a number of species (human, bovine, guineapig, mouse, chicken, and snake) indicated that BDNF is significantlyless closely related to any vertebrate NGF than the NGF's are to eachother (FIG. 2). A striking feature of the primary structure of matureBDNF is its similarity to that of NGF; with only 3 gaps introduced inthe NGF sequences to optimize matching, 51 identities are common to thevarious NGFs (from snake to man) and BDNF (FIG. 2). Importantly, thoseidentities include all 6 cysteine residues. Though the exact arrangementof BDNF's disulfide bridges are not yet known, it is clear that suchbridges are present (Table III, legend). The 3 tryptophan and 2phenylalanine residues found in BDNF are found at identical positions inNGF. We also note that 6 aspartic acid residues (out of 7 in BDNF) and 7valine (out of 9) are present at identical positions in mammalian NGFsand BDNF. These 5 amino acids account for about half of the amino acididentities between the 2 proteins. Conversely, there are some strikingdifferences between BDNF and all NGFs: in addition to the 3 gaps alreadymentioned, there are also 21 positions at which the amino acids areidentical in all NGFs, but different in BDNF.

Most of BDNF's precursor sequence is unrelated to that of NGF, with 2exceptions: the putative secretory signal sequence of BDNF shows 5 aminoacid identities (out of 18 amino acids) and an overall strikingrelatedness with the signal sequence of mouse NGF, where cleavage hasbeen demonstrated to occur after an alanine residue found in position 18after the translation initiation methionine (Edwards et al., 1988, Mol.Cell Biol. 8:2456-2464). It seems likely that the alanine also found inposition 18 in BDNF represents a potential cleavage site for the removalof BDNF's signal sequence. The other similarity with NGF starts at theonly N-glycosylation consensus sequence (double underlined in FIG. 1),corresponding to asparagine 126. This asparagine is located 8 aminoacids before the cleavage site giving rise to mature BDNF. The samearrangement is found in several NGFs, as well as the sequenceArg-X-Basic-Arg as the last 4 amino acids of the precursor (Schwarz etal., 1989, J. Neurochem. 52:1203-1209).

Proof that NGF and BDNF are encoded by distinct genes in a variety ofvertebrate species was obtained by preparing DNA probes from molecularlycloned human NGF and porcine BDNF, and carrying out Southern blothybridization with genomic DNA digested with restriction endonucleaseEcoRI. Genomic DNAs were analyzed from the following sources: human,monkey, rat, mouse, dog, bovine, rabbit, chicken, and yeast. DNA wasdigested with EcoRI, and analyzed by Southern blotting, on duplicatefilters, with a ³² P-labeled human NGF probe and a porcine BDNF probe.Single bands were observed with each probe in all organisms testedexcept yeast. In most cases the bands hybridizing with the NGF and BDNFprobes in any one organism were of different electrophoretic mobility,although in some cases (e.g. mouse DNA), the EcoRI fragments hybridizingto NGF and BDNF probes were of approximately the same size, and couldnot be resolved under the electrophoretic conditions used (FIG. 3).

A portion of the coding sequences for mature BDNF was amplified by PCRfrom genomic DNA of pig, rat, chicken, and human, and the nucleotidesequences determined. DNA sequence analysis of the amplified region fromporcine genomic DNA exactly confirmed the sequence results obtained withmolecular clones from porcine brain cDNA. The genomic sequences of rat,human, and chicken BDNF for this 252 base pair segment were alsodetermined (FIGS. 4A through 4I). Remarkably, in rat and human thededuced amino acid sequence for the region of at least amino acids 28 to111 was identical to that of porcine BDNF, although a number ofnucleotide differences (e.g. conservative changes in the third positionof a codon) were observed among the various species. In chicken a singleamino acid substitution was observed in this region; residue 61 of themature protein is a lysine in chicken compared to a methionine inmammalian BDNFs. The sequence data, together with the Southern blothybridization experiment described above, provided unequivocal proofthat BDNF is encoded by a highly conserved gene distinct from thatencoding NGF.

8. EXAMPLE: EXPRESSION OF BDNF RNA IN NEURONAL VERSUS NON-NEURONALTISSUES 8.1. Materials and Methods 8.1.1. Preparation of RNA

Total RNA was extracted from adult female mice tissues according toOkayama et al. (1987, Methods Enzymol. 154:3-28). Briefly, frozen tissuewas homogenized in 5.5M guanidinium thiocyanate, the lysate centrifugedto remove debris, and the supernatant overlaid onto a cushion of cesiumtrifluoroacetate adjusted to a density of 1.51 g/ml. After a 24 hourcentrifugation at 125,000×g in a SW 27 swinging bucket rotor (Beckmann),the RNA was resuspended and precipitated with ethanol and 8M ammoniumacetate and stored at -70° C. Electrophoresis was according to Lehrachet al. (1977, Biochemistry 16:4743-4751) on 1.3% agarose-formaldehydegels. The RNA was transferred to nylon membranes (Hybond-N, Amersham)and hybridized overnight at 62° C. in 1 ml 2×SSC containing 50%formamide with a ³² -PcRNA mouse BDNF probe (10⁷ cpm, see below).Washing was for 60 min at 65° C. in 0.1×SSC. After washing , the blotwas incubated for 60 min at room temperature with 0.1 μg/ml RNAse A(Pharmacia) and the film exposed at -70° C. (with intensifying screen)for 48 hours.

8.1.2. Preparation of cRNA Probe

A mouse brain cDNA library was screened with 2 independent BDNFoligonucleotides. Double positive clones were isolated and subclonedinto the EcoRI site of a Bluescript SK⁺ plasmid (Stratagene). Thenucleotide sequence corresponding to nucleotides 350 to 829 of the pigsequence (see FIG. 1) was determined. In this sequence, a total of only4 amino acid differences were found between mouse and pig BDNF,indicating a remarkable degree of conservation of this domain betweenpig and mouse BDNF. A single stranded RNA probe was prepared using thistemplate and the T3 polymerase (Promega). The specific activity of thisprobe was 10⁸ cpm/μg.

8.2. Results and Discussion

Northern blot analysis was used to evaluate the expression of BDNF mRNAin neuronal versus non-neuronal tissues. Northern blot analyses wereperformed using mouse tissues, allowing more rapid processing for RNAextraction than pig tissues. A ³² P-cRNA probe detected a signal atabout 1.45 kb in the brain and spinal cord (data not shown).Significantly, no signal was detected in any other tissue includingkidney, gut, lung, liver, spleen, heart and muscle. Assuming the size ofthe pig mRNA to be similar to that of the mouse, the cDNA sequence shownin FIG. 2 represents over 80% of the complete mRNA sequence.

A significant observation in the delineation of BDNF's physiology isthat the mRNA coding for this protein was only found in the centralnervous system and not in 7 non-CNS tissues. BDNF mRNA was found notonly in total brain, but also in the spinal cord and the superiorcolliculus (the sequence presented in FIG. 1 derives entirely from asuperior colliculus cDNA template). These data support the idea thatBDNF is a target-derived neurotrophic factor and that BDNF-responsiveneurons are either intrinsic to the CNS or directly connected with CNSstructures. Indeed, all the neurons known to respond to BDNF so fareither project into the CNS, like the dorsal root or the cranial sensoryganglia (Lindsay et al., 1985, Dev. Biol. 112:319-328; Davies et al.,1986, J. Neurosci. 6:1897-1904), or are CNS neurons like the retinalganglion cells (Johnson et al., 1986, J. Neurosci. 6:3031-3038).Clearly, detailed studies need to be done to examine the exactdistribution of the sites of synthesis of BDNF in the CNS, but it isalready evident that the distribution of BDNF mRNA is very differentfrom that NGF mRNA, found in many non-CNS tissues (Heumann et al., 1984,EMBO J. 3:3183-3189; Shelton et al., 1984, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.81:7951-7955).

9. EXAMPLE: MOLECULAR CLONING AND CHARACTERIZATION OF HUMAN AND RAT BDNFGENES 9.1. Materials and Methods 9.1.1. Genomic DNA and cDNA Libraries

An adult human retina cDNA library, in lambda-ZAPII was obtained fromStratagene. A human placenta genomic DNA library in EMBL3/SP6/T7 wasobtained from Clontech. A rat fetal brain cDNA library in λgt11 wasobtained from Clontech. A rat genomic DNA library in EMBL3/SP6/T7 wasobtained from Clontech. Both genomic libraries were prepared by partialdigestion of genomic DNA with Sau 3A restriction endonuclease andligation into the BamHI site of the vector. A rat brain cDNA library inlambda-ZAPII was obtained from Stratagene.

9.1.2. Preparation of BDNF DNA Probes

³² P-labeled BDNF DNA probes were prepared using the sameoligonucleotide primers described in Section 7.1.1., supra in PCRreaction with human genomic DNA in order to amplify the coding regionfor residues 28-111 of human BDNF. In parallel, a rat BDNF-specific ³²P-labeled probe was obtained, using rat genomic DNA as a template forPCR.

9.1.3. Screening of Libraries

Lambda phage libraries were screened according to standard methods(Benton and Davis, 1977, Science 196:180-182; Maniatis et al., 1978,Cell. 15:687-701), hybridizing in 50% formaldehyde with dextran sulfateand Denhardt's solution at 42° C. Filters were prehybridized at 42° C.in 50% formamide, 5XSSCPE, 10% Denhardt's, 0.5 mg/ml Salmon sperm DNA,0.1% SDS, and 10% dextran sulfate. Hybridization was carried out in thesame buffer except that Denhardt's solution was at 2%, Salmon sperm DNAwas at 0.1 mg/ml, and SDS and dextran sulfate were omitted. Afterhybridization filters were washed at 68° C. Human BDNF probe was used toscreen human genomic DNA and retina cDNA libraries; rat BDNF probe wasused to screen rat genomic DNA and brain cDNA libraries. Libraries werealso screened with human and rat NGF probes, prepared as described inSection 7.1.1. supra.

9.2. Results and Discussion

At least 670,000 plaques were screened from each library. Positive humanclones were considered to be those which hybridized with the human BDNFprobe, but not with the human NGF probe described above. BDNF genomicclones were obtained from both the human and rat libraries at afrequency consistent with representation of the BDNF gene at one copyper haploid genome. For both rat and human genomic libraries,approximately one million plaques were screened. Three positives wereobtained from the rat genomic library and one was obtained from thehuman genomic library. Positive clones from the human retinal and ratbrain cDNA libraries were obtained at a frequency consistent with a geneexpressed at very low levels; in rat brain cDNA, 2 positives wereidentified in 670,000; in human retinal cDNA library, one in 670,000clones were identified. No positive clones were detected among 670,000from the commercial cDNA library prepared from human fetal brain.Nucleotide sequencing was carried out on human BDNF cDNA and genomicclones, using synthetic oligonucleotide primers representing exactsequences from within the human and rat BDNF coding region, asdetermined in Section 7.1.2., supra. The longest human cDNA cloneobtained had an insert of approximately 1.6 to 1.8 kbp, and, asexpected, contained the exact sequence of the portion of human BDNFdetermined after direct amplification from human genomic DNA, asdescribed in Section 7.2., supra. Detailed sequence analysis of thiscDNA (FIGS. 4A through 4I) clone revealed an open reading frame encodinga polypeptide of 247 amino acids, similar but not identical to thefull-length precursor to porcine BDNF. Within the region correspondingto the mature BDNF polypeptide (e.g. from the codon for His134 to thechain termination codon) no differences in deduced amino acid sequencewere found; all nucleotide substitutions between pig and man wereconservative with respect to coding specificity. The remainder of theputative BDNF precursor polypeptide showed some amino acid sequencedifferences between human and pig, most notably the absence in the humanBDNF gene of 5 of 6 consecutive Ser codons seen in pig, resulting in aslightly shorter polypeptide (247 versus 252 amino acids).

Libraries prepared in vector EMBL3 have inserts of between 10 to 23 kbpof foreign DNA. The exact insert size in the human genomic BDNF cloneanalyzed in detail was not determined. However, the clone contained asingle EcoRI restriction endonuclease fragment of approximately 4 kbpthat hybridized with the labeled BDNF probe used to screen the library.This fragment is the expected size, based on the results of Southernblot hybridization of human genomic DNA with the porcine BDNF probedescribed above. Sequence analysis was carried out on the human clone,using synthetic oligonucleotides representing cDNA sequence to prime DNAsynthesis from the bacteriophage DNA template. The sequence of thecoding sequence for the putative human BDNF precursor was found to beidentical to that in the human cDNA clone, with the exception of asingle nucleotide substitution in the prepro region, corresponding to anamino acid substitution of methionine (ATG) for Valine (GTG), atnucleotide 785, in FIGS. 4A through 4I. This change may reflect apolymorphism in the human genome. As in the case of the human NGF gene,no intervening sequences were detected within the coding sequence forthe putative human preproBDNF. Rat cDNA sequence data is also presentedin FIGS. 4A through 4I.

10. EXAMPLE: EXPRESSION OF RECOMBINANT BDNF 10.1. Materials and Methods10.1.1. Preparation of a BDNF Expression Vector

The sequence corresponding to pig preproBDNF was obtained by using theoligonucleotide primers (150 pmole each) ATAATCTAGATGACCATCCTTTTCCT(sense) ATAATCTAGACTATCTTCCCCTCTTAAT (antisense) in a PCR reaction using1 μg of pig genomic template (each primer has an added XbaI site). Theamplification reaction was as described, except that the annealingtemperature was 50° C. After digestion with XbaI, the amplified DNA wasligated in the XbaI site of the plasmid pCMVI¹ to produce pCMV¹ -pBDNF⁻¹(-1 denotes sense orientation in FIG. 5 and corresponds to COS+ in TableV), and the plasmid was introduced into XL-1 bacteria byelectroporation.

10.1.2. Expression of BDNF in COS Cells

pCMV1-pBDNF plasmid DNA from positive clones (checked by hybridizationwith oligo5, FIG. 2) was cut with both XbaI and PstI. The size of theresulting products allowed us to determine the orientation of theinserts, and both plasmids were used to transfect COS cells by thecalcium phosphate method (Chen et al., 1987, Mol. Cell 24 h. BDNFactivity was tested in the chick embryo dorsal root ganglion bioassaydiscussed in detail supra.

10.2. Results and Discussion

E8 chick spinal sensory neurons were plated (6,000 per well), incubatedfor 24 h and counted after 24 h (Lindsay et al., 1985, Develop. Biol.112: 319-328). The values are the means of triplicate determinations+standard deviation. BDNF and NGF were used at 1 ng/ml, concentrationsat which maximal survival is observed with either factor. COS+refers tocells transfected with plasmids containing the BDNF insert in the senseorientation, COS- to cells transfected with plasmids containing the BDNFinserts in the reverse orientation. COS refers to non-transfected cells.At dilutions higher than 1:20, no survival above control was seen witheither COS- or COS conditioned medium. In all experiments without NGF, amonoclonal anti-NGF antibody (Korsching et al., 1988, Proc. Natl. Acad.Sci. U.S.A. 80:3513-3516) was used at 1 μg/ml.

As shown in Table V, only the medium obtained from cultures of COS cellsbearing pCMV1-pBDNF plasmid in the sense orientation was associated withchick sensory neuron survival above control values. Therefore, therecombinant BDNF is biologically active. Further, addition of BDNFisolated from pig brain did not increase the survival of sensory neuronssignificantly above survival levels resulting from recombinant BDNFalone, indicating that the recombinant BDNF is capable of saturatingBDNF receptors. Recombinant BDNF was also observed to have an additiveor synergistic effect toward promoting chick sensory neuron survivalwhen used together with NGF.

                  TABLE V                                                         ______________________________________                                        SURVIVAL OF CULTURED CHICK SENSORY NEURONS                                    ______________________________________                                        COS medium (final                                                                         1:20      1:50       1:200                                        dilution)                                                                     COS+                  2,510 ± 263                                                                           2,833 ± 171                               COS-        211 ± 16                                                       COS         250 ± 87                                                       BDNF + COS+           2,516 ± 209                                          NGF + COS+            5,770 ± 72                                           BDNF alone            2,718 ± 424                                          ______________________________________                                    

11. EXAMPLE: GENERATION OF ANTIBODIES TO BDNF 11.1. Materials andMethods

A polyclonal antiserum specific for BDNF, designated sera 4, wasgenerated in a NZ white rabbit by immunization with a synthetic peptide.

11.1.1. Peptide Synthesis and Coupling to Carrier

A peptide consisting of 34 amino acid residues, designated B5, wassynthesized by conventional methods. It has the following amino acidsequence, corresponding to 33 residues of mature BDNF (residues 153 to185 of the complete porcine preproBDNF sequence shown in FIG. 1) with anadditional cysteine residue at the amino-terminus (shown in italics) topermit coupling to a carrier protein using m-maleimidobenzoicacid-N-hydroxysuccinimide (MBS), if desired:

Cys-Val-Thr-Ala-Ala-Asp-Lys-Lys-Thr-Ala-Val-Asp-Met-Ser-Gly-Gly-Thr-Val-Thr-Val-Leu-Glu-Lys-Val-Pro-Val-Ser-Lys-Gly-Gln-Leu-Lys-Gln-Tyr

The B5 peptide was coupled to bovine serum albumin (BSA) using bis-diazobenzidine (BDB). Fresh BDB was prepared by dissolving 46 mgbenzidine-HCl (p-diaminodiphenyl-HCl, obtained from Sigma) in 9.0 ml of0.2N HCl. 35 mg NaNO² was dissolved in 1.0 ml H₂ O and added to thebenzidine solution, and stirred for 1 hour at 4° C. 21 mg of BSA wasdissolved in 3.0 ml of 0.16M borate, 0.13M NaCl, pH 9.0. Approximately15 mg of B5 peptide was dissolved in 1.5 ml borate-NaCl buffer, pH 0.0.The peptide solution was added to the BSA solution, and placed in ice.1.0 ml of BDB was added to the BSA-peptide solution, and the reactionmixture was incubated with stirring for 2 hours at 4° C.; the pH wasmonitored and maintained in the range of 9.0 by the addition of smallamounts of 0.5M NAOH, as required. The reaction was terminated byaddition of 0.2 ml of 1% phenol-buffered solution. Excess reagents wereremoved by dialysis against phosphate buffered saline (PBS).

11.1.2. Immunization

A total of six rabbits were immunized according to the followingprotocol:

Rabbits 1 and 4--peptide B5 coupled at its C-terminus to BSA, using BDB;

Rabbits 2 and 3--peptide B5 coupled at its N-terminus to BSA, using MBS;

Rabbits 5 and 6--peptide B5 mixed with powdered nitrocellulose.

In all cases the first immunization used 1 mg of immunogen (100 μgB5/500 μg nitrocellulose for rabbits 5 and 6) in 0.5 ml PBS plus 0.5 mlml complete Freund's adjuvant. This mixture was injected subcutaneouslyinto multiple sites on the back. The second immunization was carried outthree weeks later, and was identical to the first except that incompleteFreund's adjuvant was used in place of complete Freund's adjuvant.Subsequent boosts occurred at intervals of 4-6 weeks. Rabbits were bled1 week after immunization, and the antisera routinely checked forbinding to the pure B5 peptide by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay(ELISA).

11.1.3. Detection of Antibody Binding to BDNF

100 μg of antigen (B5 peptide) in H₂ O was added to wells on amicrotiter plate and allowed to dry overnight, then washed briefly withH₂ O and blocked with 100 μg 1% gelatin for 30 minutes at roomtemperature. Wells were washed three times with distilled water, andthen 100 μg of antisera was added and allowed to incubate at 4° C.overnight. Wells were then washed three times in PBS/0.05% triton X-100,after which 100 μg peroxidase labeled anti-rabbit immunoassay (1/1000dilution) was added to wells and incubated at room temperature for threehours. Wells were washed twice, and 100 μg ABTS solution (10 mg ABTS(Sigma) dissolved in 10 ml 0.1M NaCitrate pH 4.0 plus 10 μg H₂ O₂) wasadded and incubated for about 5 minutes, until color developed. Thereaction was stopped by the addition of 10 μg 1% NaN.sub. 3. Sampleswere diluted 1:5 with H₂ O and optical density was measured at 415 nm.

11.2. Results and Discussion

The antiserum from rabbit 4 (sera 4) showed the highest titre, (FIG. 6A)and was utilized in subsequent experiments. Antibodies from sera 4 werepartially purified by precipitation with ammonium sulphate; to a portionof antiserum an equal volume of saturated ammonium sulfate was addedslowly, with stirring, and the solution was stirred for a further 15minutes, then centrifuged at 2,000×g. The pellet was washed twice in 50%saturated ammonium sulphate, then redissolved in PBS in a volumecorresponding to the original volume of serum. Ammonium sulphate wasremoved by dialysis against several changes of PBS. The dialyzedsolution was aliquoted in 1.0 ml volumes and subjected to lyophilizationusing a speed-vac. A sample of sera 4 antibody was resuspended in 0.5 mlH₂ O and tested for reactivity with peptide B5 by ELISA, and was foundto react to a dilution of 1:4000.

Polyclonal antibodies to a synthetic peptide (B5) corresponding to a 33amino acid fragment of porcine BDNF were generated by immunizing rabbitsas described above. Sera 4, which showed the highest titre against thesynthetic peptide, showed reactivity with purified BDNF from porcinebrain by ELISA (FIG. 6B). Weak reactivity was also detected byimmunoblotting (DATA NOT SHOWN). However, the antiserum was unable toblock the activity of BDNF in a biological assay on chick embryo dorsalroot ganglion sensory neurons.

12. EXAMPLE: NOVEL BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF BDNF

The following observations indicate that BDNF is capable of (i)sustaining the survival and inducing the fully differentiated state ofCNS dopaminergic neurons; (ii) sustaining the survival of CNScholinergic neurons; and (iii) suppressing the proliferation ofastroglial cells. These biological effects of BDNF have not beendescribed previously. As dopaminergic neurons, cholinergic neurons, andastroglial cells may each be associated with neurological diseases ordisorders, BDNF may prove to be useful in the treatment ofneuropathologies involving these cell populations.

12.1. Materials and Methods 12.1.1. Methods for Culturing DopaminergicSubstantia Nigra Neurons

Ventral mesencephalon was dissected from brains of rat embryos varyingin age from embryonic day 13 to embryonic day 15. Typically, two litterswere used in each experiment. The dissection solution had the followingcomposition: NaCl, 136.8 mM, KCI, 2.7 mM, Na₂ HPO₄.7H₂ O, 8.0 mM, KH₂PO₄, 1.5 mM, glucose, 6 mg/ml, and BSA, 0.1 mg/ml, pH 7.4. This solutionwas prepared and subsequently filter sterilized through a 0.2 μM porefilter. The dissection was performed under non-sterile conditions. Oncethe tissue was dissected from all the brains, the rest of the procedurewas carried out under sterile conditions. The tissue fragments wereplaced in a 35 mm culture dish and minced using a fine scissors. Two mlof F-12 nutrient media containing 0.125% trypsin was then added to thetissue, and incubated at 37° C. At the end of this incubation period,DNAseI was added to the slurry such that the final concentration was 80ng/ml. Another identical incubation was carried out, and the tissueslurry was subsequently added to 8.0 ml of growth medium consisting ofMinimal Essential Medium (MEM) supplemented with 2 mM glutamine, 6 mg/mlglucose, 5 units/ml penicillin, 5 mg/ml streptomycin, and 7.5% fetalcalf serum (FCS). The sample was centrifuged in a tabletop centrifuge atroom temperature at 500 rpm for a period of 5 minutes. The medium wasaspirated, and 2 ml growth medium was added to the cell pellet. A firepolished pipette with an opening of 1 mm was used to triturate the cellseight times. The remaining tissue fragments were allowed to settle bygravity, and a small aliquot of the supernatant was taken to assess cellnumber by counting in a hemocytometer. After cell density wasdetermined, the cells were plated into tissue culture plates at adensity of 50,000/cm².

The culture plates were prepared on the day prior to dissection. Tissueplates (24 well, 2 cm² /well) were precoated with polyornithine(molecular weight 30,000-70,000 g/mol), 0.5 mg/ml, at room temperaturefor 3 hours. The plates were extensively washed with water, andsubsequently treated with mouse laminin, 5 μg/ml, at room temperaturefor 3 hours. The plates were then washed with water as above, andincubated overnight at 37° C. in a humidified atmosphere consisting of5% CO₂, 95% air, in the presence of growth medium. The medium in theplates was removed the following day and replaced with fresh growthmedium.

Once the cells were plated onto the culture plates, the cells wereplaced in an incubator set at 37° C. and 5% CO₂ /95% air for a period of24 hours. The culture medium was changed to a serum-free formulation(SFM) having the following composition: a 1:1 (vol:vol) mixture of BasalEagle Medium (BEM) and nutrient mixture F-12 with glucose (33 mM),glutamine (2 mM), NaHCO₃ (15 mM), HEPES (10 mM), supplemented withinsulin (25 μg/ml), transferrin (100 μg/ml), putrescine (60 μM),progesterone (20 nM), sodium selenite (30 nM), penicillin (5 U/ml),streptomycin (5 mg/ml), and T3 (30 nM). In some experiments, purifiedBDNF was added to the cultures after the media change to SFM on cultureday 2.

The solutions used for culturing dopaminergic neurons were preparedusing water taken from a Milli-Q reagent water system. The tissueculture media formulations were obtained through Gibco Laboratories(Santa Clara, Calif.), as was the fetal calf serum (lot number 43N1086)and the mouse laminin. All other media components were purchased fromSigma Chemical (St. Louis, Mo.), and were cell culture tested grade. Thepolyornithine and DNAseI were also obtained from Sigma. Trypsin wasobtained from Worthington (Freehold, N.J.), lot number 3667. Commercialchemicals were of analytical grade, purchased from Baker Chemical(Phillipsburg, N.J.). The BDNF used in these experiments was purifiedfrom pig brain by Dr. Y.-A. Barde, according to the procedure of Bardeet al., 1982 (supra).

12.1.2. Methods for Immunocythochemical Staining of VentralMesencephalon Cultures

Fixative solutions were prepared fresh for each experiment. For thestaining of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the fixative was 4.0%paraformaldehyde in Sorenson's phosphate buffer. The Sorenson buffer wasprepared by adding a 0.2M solution of KH₂ PO₄ to a stock of 0.2M Na₂HPO₄ until the pH reached 7.3. The paraformaldehyde was subsequentlyadded to the solution and briefly heated, to allow it to be dissolved,and cooled to room temperature before use.

To begin the procedure, culture medium was removed from the culturedishes by gentle suction, and the proper fixative solution was gentlyadded to the dish. A room temperature incubation of 20 minutes wascarried out. Three washes in Sorenson's phosphate buffer, for 5 minuteseach, with gentle rotation, followed. The cells were then incubated in aquench solution for 30 minutes at room temperature with gentle rotation.The quench solution for the cultures to be stained for TH consisted ofSorenson's phosphate buffer containing 2% normal horse serum. Next, thecultures were incubated in permeabilization buffer at room temperaturefor 30 minutes with gentle rotation. The solution consisted ofSorenson's buffer containing 0.2% saponin, and 1.5% of normal horseserum for the cultures to be stained for TH. Following thepermeabilization step, the cultures were incubated in the presence ofprimary antibody overnight at 4° C. The antibody against rat TH was amouse monoclonal antibody of isotype IgG2a. It was used at 40 μg/ml in asolution of 10 mM NaPO₄, 50 mM NaCl, 0.2% saponin pH 7.5. Following theprimary antibody incubation, the cultures were washed 5 times for 15minutes each in the appropriate permeabilization buffer. Next, thecultures were incubated with secondary antibody conjugated to biotin,that is biotinylated horse anti-mouse IgG. This incubation was carriedout at room temperature for two hours with gentle rotation. Washesidentical to those described above followed, and the cultures were thenincubated in the presence of a preformed avidin-biotinylatedhorseradishperoxidase complex (ABC reagent, Vector Laboratories,Burlingame, Calif.) prepared according to manufacturer's protocol. Aftera 30 min. incubation at room temperature with gentle rotation, thecultures were washed as described above. The cultures were subsequentlyincubated with 55 mM Tris-Cl pH 7.3 containing 0.5 mg/mldiaminobenzidine and 0.01% hydrogen peroxide. The development ofreaction product was allowed to proceed for 2-5 min. after which thesolution was removed and the cultures were washed several times with icecold PBS. The number of positive cells/cm² was then ascertained.

The paraformaldehyde and the glutaraldehyde were obtained from FlukaChemical. Vectastain kits containing normal serum (used as a blockingagent), biotinylated, affinity-purified anti-immunoglobulin, avidin DH,and biotinylated HRP-H were purchased from Vector Laboratories. Thediaminobenzidine was obtained from BRL (Gaithersberg, Md.).

12.1.3. Methods Used in Measuring ³ H-Dopamine Uptake in VentralMesencephalon Cultures

³ H-dopamine (³ H-DA) uptake was performed as described by Dal Toso etal. (1988, J. Neurosci. 8:733-745) with minor modifications. The uptakebuffer had the following composition: NaCl, 136.8 mM, KCI, 2.7 mM, Na₂HPO₄.7H₂ O, 8.0 mM, KH₂ PO₄, 1.5 mM, glucose, 5.0 mM, caCl₂ 2, 1.0 mM,MgSO₄, 1.0 mM, ascorbic acid, 0.1 mM, pargyline, 0.1 mM, pH 7.4 Whennecessary, 5.0 μM benztropine mesylate (BZT) was added to the uptakebuffer.

The cells were washed once with prewarmed (37° C.) uptake buffer, andreplaced with 0.4 ml uptake buffer/2 cm² well. The cultures were thenpreincubated for 5 min. at 37° C. At the end of this preincubation 0.1ml ³ H-DA, in uptake buffer (250 nM, 40 Ci/mMol), was added such thatthe final concentration of 3H-DA in the buffer was 50 nM. The cultureswere incubated at 37° C. for 15 min., followed by four washes at 4° C.,0.5 ml each, with uptake buffer. Two additional washes with ice cold PBS(10 mM NaPO₄, 150 mM NaCl, pH 7.6) were carried out as well. After thelast wash was completed, 0.2 ml/2 cm² well 0.5N NaOH was added to thecells, and allowed to stand at room temperature for two hours. The NaOHextract was subsequently collected, and counted in a scintillationcounter (Packard, LS 500 TD) with 10 ml "ultimagold" scintillationfluid. Specific uptake was defined as that uptake which was abolished inthe presence of 5 μM BZT. Typically, this represented 70-90% of thetotal uptake observed.

³ H-DA was obtained from NEN (Boston, Mass.). Ascorbate, pargyline, BZT,and glucose were obtained from Sigma (St. Louis, Mo.). The ultimagoldscintillation fluid was purchased from Packard (Sterling, Va.).

12.1.4. Methods for Producing Cultures of Basal Forebrain CholinergicNeurons

Primary cultures of basal forebrain cholinergic cells were produced fromembryonic day 17 rats. Specifically, the cholinergic neurons used inthis study were derived from the medial septal nucleus and the nucleusof the diagonal band of Broca. This neuronal population projectsprimarily to the hippocampus. The dissociated mixed cultures (neuronsand glia) were produced by the following procedure. The septal regionwas dissected free from the surrounding tissue, and removed from thefetal brain. The tissue pieces were then pooled, minced with scissors,and treated for 20 minutes at 37° C. with 12.5% trypsin. The trypsin wasinactivated by dilution in the plating medium (Dulbecco's modified Eaglemedium (DMEM) containing 1% penicillin and streptomycin, 5% horse serum,and 1% N3, a hormone supplement). A single cell suspension was producedby trituration of the digested tissue fragments with a fire polishedpasteur pipette. The dissociated cells were counted on a hemocytometerand plated at the appropriate density in the plating medium. Testligands were added to the cultures five to six hours after plating andthe cells were then grown in vitro for ten days with medium changesbeing made every three days.

12.1.5. Choline Acetyl Transferase Assays

Following the treatment period the cells were either used for cholineacetyltransferase (CAT) enzyme assays or processed forimmunohistochemical staining for CAT by the following protocol. Themonoclonal antibody to CAT was purchased from Boehringer MannheimBiochemical Co. and has been characterized elsewhere. At the end of theexperimental period the cells were rinsed twice with DMEM. The cultureswere fixed by a two step procedure; 50 μl of 4% paraformaldehyde wasadded to 50 μl of DMEM for a 10 minute incubation period. This solutionwas removed and replaced with 100 μl of 4% paraformaldehyde and theincubation was continued for 30 minutes at room temperature. Followingthe fixation, the cells were rinsed three times with phosphate bufferedsaline (PBS) and permeabilized by a 30 minute incubation with saponin(0.5 mg/ml). The detergent was removed with three washes of PBS, and ablocking solution of 5% normal rabbit serum was added for 30 minutes.The primary antibody was added at a dilution of 1:3 in 1% normal rabbitserum, subsequent to the removal of the blocking solution, and thecultures were incubated overnight at 4° C. The solution containing theprimary antibody was removed with a PBS wash. The bound immunoglobulinwas detected by the Vectastain "ABC" method. Diaminobenzidenetetrahydrochloride (DAB) was used as the substrate for the peroxidasereaction which was usually carried out for one to five minutes. Thereaction was stopped by rinsing the cultures two times with 0.1Mtris-HCl pH 7.2. The cultures were stored in 50 mM tris, pH 7.6containing 0.15M NaCl, 42% glycerol, and 0.15% Zephiran (Pierce ChemicalCo., Rockville, Ill.) at 4° C.

12.1.6. Method of Generating Purified Astroglial Cell Cultures

Purified glial cultures were prepared essentially by the method ofMcCarthy and DeVellis (McCarthy, K. D., and DeVellis, J., 1980, J. CellBiol. 85:890-902) from postnatal day 1-2 rat hippocampus. Hippocampiwere removed from five pups and minced with scissors. The tissue pieceswere then digested in 2 mls of 0.125% trypsin for 20 minutes at 37° C.The protease was inactivated by dilution, with plating medium (10% fetalbovine serum Gibco, DMEM, 0.5% penicillin (5000 mcg/ml) and 0 5%glutamine). A single cell suspension was produced by passing thedigested tissue fragments through a constricted pasteur pipette. Thecells were pelleted by centrifugation at 900 rpm for five minutes,resuspended in plating medium, and then counted on a hemocytometer. Thesingle cell suspension was divided into three, 75 cm tissue cultureflasks and the cells were grown to approximately 80% of confluency. Thecells were then subcultured by a trypsinization protocol similar to thatjust described. The glial cells were counted and plated at a density of10,000 cells/0.9cm².

12.2. Results 12.2.1. The Effect of BDNF on Tyrosine Hydroxylase Presentin Ventral Mesencephalon Cultures

Immunocytochemical staining, as described in section 12.1.2, supra, wasused to measure the effect of BDNF on the number of tyrosine hydroxylase(TH) positive cells (FIG. 7). A maximal increase of more than 200percent of control was observed by day 8 in BDNF stimulated cultures ofventral mesencephalon cells. A very slight increase was observed asearly as culture day 3 in BDNF-stimulated cultures.

12.2.2. The Effect of BDNF on Dopamine Uptake Uptake by VentralMesencephalon Cultures

³ H-dopamine (³ H-DA) uptake was measured according to the method of DalTaso et al. (1988, J. Neurosci. 8:733-745) with minor modifications, asdescribed in section 12.1.3, supra. A slight increase in dopamine uptakewas observed in BDNF stimulated ventral mesencephalon cultures by day 8in culture (FIG. 8).

12.2.3. The Effect of BDNF on Choline Acetyltransferase Expression byForebrain Cholinergic Neurons

FIG. 9A depicts the effect of BDNF on the number of CAT positive cellsfollowing a growth period of 12 days in vitro. A 5.9 fold increase inCAT cell number was observed with the addition of 100 ng/ml of BDNF,while the EC50 was calculated to be 10 ng/ml. As a positive control,cultures at 260,000 (Black bar) or 150,000 (hatched bar) cells per wellwere treated in an identical manner with NGF (FIG. 9B). The 260,000 cellper well density corresponds to that used for the BDNF study. Thisincrease in the number of CAT immunopositive cells is similar to thatwhich has been reported previously. The potential for BDNF to act oncholinergic neurons was also examined by measuring CAT enzyme activity(F. Fonnum; J. Neurochemistry, 1975, 24:407-409). FIG. 10 depicts thechanges in CAT produced with a BDNF In this case, a 1.8 fold increasewas achieved with 100 ng/ml of BDNF and the EC50 was calculated to be 61ng/ml.

12.2.4. Effects of BDNF or EGF on Astroglial Cell Cultures

Type II astrocytes have been demonstrated to have high affinityreceptors for a variety of neurotransmitters and neuropeptides. Thusastrocytes are capable of responding to neuronally derived signals. Forthis reason and because the type II astrocytes represent a cellularcomponent in the primary cultures, a possible direct effect of BDNF onglial cells was tested. The cells were kept in vitro for four days priorto the addition of growth factors to allow them to reach approximately60% of confluency and were then treated for 42 hours with EGF or BDNF.For the last 18 hours of the incubation [³ H]methylthymidine was presentin the medium. The effect of EGF is shown FIG. 11A. As has beenpreviously reported, EGF was found to be mitogenic for the astrocytes.The maximal response was observed with 10 ng/ml of EGF which produced a5.2-fold increase in [³ H]methylthymidine incorporation. FIG. 11Bdepicts the effect of BDNF on [³ H]methylthymidine incorporation. Theresponse to BDNF appears to be biphasic: very low doses (0.1 ng/ml)produced a slight increase in thymidine incorporation; while dosesgreater than 1 ng/ml BDNF inhibited the incorporation of [²H]methylthymidine. BDNF at a dosage of 5 ng/ml produced an inhibition of24% suggesting a decrease in the rate of glial cell proliferation overthe treatment period.

12.3. Discussion

These in vitro experiments clearly show that BDNF sustains the survivalor induces the fully differentiated state of dopaminergic neurons of thedeveloping rat substantia nigra, as shown by staining for tyrosinehydroxylase and dopamine uptake in cultures of these neurons derivedfrom embryonic rat mesencephalon. As these are the neurons whichdegenerate in Parkinson's disease, it is highly probable that BDNF hastherapeutic potential in Parkinson, disease either by reducing loss ofneurons or by increasing the levels of tyrosine hydroxylase (the ratelimiting enzyme in dopamine synthesis) or possibly both.

Furthermore, like nerve growth (NGF), BDNF appears to have an effect onthe survival of cholinergic neurons of the rat basal forebrain as shownby increased choline acetyltransferase (CAT) staining, increased CATactivity and increased acetylcholinesterase staining in cultures of ratembryo medial septal nucleus and nucleus of the diagonal band of Broca.Accordingly, BDNF alone or in conjunction with NGF may be useful in thetreatment of diseases or disorders that affect the cholinergic neuronsof the basal forebrain, including, for example, Alzheimer's disease.

13. EXAMPLE: IDENTIFICATION OF A NOVEL GENE IN THE BDNF/NGF GENE FAMILY

The approach of identifying novel members of the NGF/BDNF gene family byutilizing PCR with degenerate oligonucleotides, based on the segments ofamino acid sequence conservation between NGF and BDNF (Boxes 1-4, seesection 5.8), was first tested by determining whether pairs of suchprimers could be utilized to amplify both NGF and BDNF gene sequencesfrom genomic DNA of several species. This method was then used toidentify a novel gene which shares homology with NGF and BDNF in allfour boxes of homology noted.

13.1. Materials and Methods 13.1.1. Polymerase Chain Reaction

PCR was performed essentially as described in Section 6, supra.

13.2. Results 13.2.1. Amplification of Both NGF and BDNF Sequences FromGenomic DNA

Degenerate synthetic oligonucleotide primers were synthesizedcorresponding to portions of Box 1 and Box 2 of amino acid sequenceconservation between NGF and BDNF (see section 5.8 above), and utilizedin a PCR reaction with rat genomic DNA as template. The exact primersequences were as follows (positions of degeneracy, with mixture of twoor more bases included in oligonucleotide synthesis step, shown inparentheses; underlining italics indicate tails with multiplerestriction endonuclease cleavage sites provided to facilitate ligationto vector in a subsequent cloning step; A=adenine, G=guanine,C=cytosine, T=thymine, N=mixture of A,G,C,T):

Box 1 (sense), primer 1B:

5'-GACTCGAGTCGACTCGGTGTG(C,T)GACAG(C,T)(A,G)T(C,T,A)AG-3'

Box 2 (antisense), primer 2C:

5'-CCAAGCTTCTAGAATTCCA(C,T)TT(N)GT(C,T)TC(A,G)(A,T)A(A,G)AA(A,G),TA(C,T)TG-3'

300 ng of each degenerate primer mixture was added to 500 ng of ratgenomic DNA in 100 microliters of the standard reaction mixture for PCR.35 cycles were carried out, each consisting of incubation for 1 minuteat 94° C., 2 minutes at 43° C., and 2 minutes at 72° C. The anticipatedsize of the product of PCR amplification of either the BDNF or NGF geneusing these primers would be 175 base pairs, including the two 17-mer"tails" (underlined) included for convenience in subsequent cloningsteps. Electrophoresis of the reaction mixture on an 8%polyacrylamide/5% glycerol gel yielded a major band of amplified DNA ofthe anticipated size, 175 bp.

13.2.2. Detection of Sequences Complementary to the BDNF/NGF Probe inGenomic DNAS of Various Species

The 175 bp band was removed from the acrylamide gel by electroelution,and amplified further in a second PCR reaction of seven cycles, underidentical reaction conditions to the first except that theconcentrations of dGTP, dATP, and TTP were lowered to 50 μM each, andalpha-³² P-dCTP tracer was utilized in place of unlabeled dCTP. Theradiolabeled DNA product was separated from reaction components bychromatography on a sizing column. This probe, designated "R1B/2C" (forrat DNA amplified from primers 1B and 2C), was then utilized to detectcomplementary sequences in genomic DNAs of various vertebrate species(results with rat, mouse, and chicken are shown in FIG. 12), afterdigestion with EcoRI restriction endonuclease and blotting tonitrocellulose by the method of Southern hybridization on EcoRI-digestedgenomic DNAs, as shown in FIG. 12.

The sizes of the EcoRI fragments of genomic DNA containing NGF and BDNFsequences were determined in controls on parallel blots usingradiolabeled human NGF and BDNF probes, prepared by PCR from clonedgenes. The positions of the NGF and BDNF genomic EcoRI fragments areindicated in FIG. 12 as N and B, respectively. The results of a similaranalysis were presented in FIG. 3, and equivalent results were obtainedusing a human BDNF probe as with the porcine BDNF probe shown in FIG. 3.As noted above, NGF and BDNF probes each hybridized to single EcoRIfragments in a variety of vertebrate genomic DNAs. For example in ratDNA the BDNF probe detected a band of approximately 8.8 kb, while theNGF probe detected a band of approximately 10.4 kb.

As seen in FIG. 12, in every species tested (data shown for chicken,mouse and rat) the R1B/2C probe hybridized to a DNA bandindistinguishable from that identified by the NGF probe as well as to aband indistinguishable from that identified by the BDNF probe (in mouse,the NGF and BDNF genomic EcoRI fragments have the same electrophoreticmobility, corresponding to approximately 11.5-12.0 kb). Thisdemonstrates that the degenerate oligonucleotide primers 1B and 2C canbe utilized to amplify sequences from both the NGF and BDNF genes. Itwas noteworthy that in some cases additional bands were observed in thegenomic Southern blot hybridized with the R1B/2C probe. For example, inEcoRI-digested mouse genomic DNA at least two additional bands (labeledXl and X2, of approximately 19.0 kb and 1.5 kb, respectively),corresponding to neither NGF nor BDNF were observed. Similarly, at leasttwo additional bands were observed in hybridization to rat DNA (X1, X2,of approximately 7.3 and 1.2 kb, respectively), and at least one inchicken DNA (X, approximately 2.6 kb). Additional bands, not labeledexplicitly in this figure, were also observed in some cases. Thepresence of bands not attributable to NGF or BDNF suggested the possibleexistence of additional member(s) of the gene family. Similarly, bandsclearly distinct from those known to contain the BDNf and NGF genesequences were found utilizing other sets of primer pairs and genomicDNA templates (data not shown).

13.2.3. Identification of a Novel Gene Related to BDNF and NGF

A specific test of the hypothesis that novel genes related to NGF andBDNF could be identified by PCR using degenerate oligonucleotide primerswas carried out using primers for Box 3 and Box 4 (see section 5.8above), and mouse genomic DNA as template. Degenerate primers weresynthesized of the sequences:

Box 3 (sense):

5'-GGGGATCCGCGGITG(T,C)(C,A)GIGGIAT(T,C,A,)GA-3'

Box 4 (anti-sense):

5'-TCGAATTCTAGATIC(T,G)IAT(AG)AAIC(T,G)LCCA-3'

(G=guanine, A=adenine, C-cytosine, T=thymine, I=inosine; mixtures ofmore than one base at a single position in the oligonucleotide shown inparentheses). Note that inosine was utilized at some positionscorresponding to the third ("wobble") base of a codon, to allow for thedegeneracy of the genetic code. It is also possible to utilize a mixtureof the four conventional DNA bases rather than inosine, and essentiallyidentical results have been obtained with such primers.

With the degenerate Box 3/Box 4 primer pair, PCR from the genomic NGFand BDNF sequences in mouse DNA would be expected to amplify a segmentof approximately 90 bp. Utilizing the primers shown above, PCR wascarried out for four cycles with an annealing temperature of 45° C.,followed by 31 cycles with an annealing temperature of 49° C. Theproducts were analyzed by gel electrophoresis, and a major band of theexpected size was observed. In the mouse the NGF gene contains a HindIIrestriction endonuclease cleavage site in the region between Box 3 and B, while the BDNF gene contains a site of cleavage for the enzyme Apal inthis region. Therefore, digestion of the product of PCR amplificationwith HindII and Apal would be expected to eliminate NGF and BDNFsequences from the major product band. However, when the PCR product wasdigested to apparent completion with these two restriction enzymes, adigestion-resistant band was found to persist in the amplified DNA. Thissuggests that, in addition to NGF and BDNF genes, at least one novelgene had been amplified.

13.2.4. Characterization of a Novel Member of The BDNF/NGF Gene Family

The digestion-resistant PCR product was eluted from a gel, and utilizedas template in asymmetric PCR reactions in which either one of theoriginal degenerate primers was present in 100-fold molar excess overthe other primer. This asymmetric amplification permitted the productionof single-stranded DNA templates suitable for sequencing by the chaintermination method. The sequence analysis of the novel gene (designatedhere as "M3/4" but also referred to as Neurotrophin-3) was extendedfurther by PCR amplification of sequences between an exact primerlocated between Boxes 3 and 4 and the polyA sequence at the 3'end of thegene's transcript, using the strategy for "rapid amplification of cDNAends" (RACE) described by M. A. Frohman, M. K. Dush, and G. R. Martin,Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 85:8998-9002 (1988). The results of DNAsequencing revealed that a novel gene had been amplified, comprising anopen reading frame capable of encoding a polypeptide distinct from bothNGF and BDNF but closely related in amino acid sequence to both (FIG.13).

Preliminary evidence that this new gene encodes a neurotrophic factorwas obtained by determining its pattern of expression in rat tissues bynorthern blot hybridization. This analysis indicated that the novel geneis expressed much more strongly in brain tissue than in any other tissueexamined.

13.3. Discussion

As shown above (FIG. 12), the DNA probe obtained by PCR amplificationusing primers for Boxes 1 and 2 with rat genomic DNA as template(R1B/2C) hybridized to novel bands in addition to those known to containNGF and BDNF gene sequences in EcoRI-digested DNA of every speciestested. A similar analysis was carried out using a radioactively labeledprobe for the novel gene amplified using Box 3 and 4 primers on mousegenomic DNA (M3/4). In each case, the M3/4 probe hybridized to a singlemajor band of EcoRI-digested genomic DNA, that was distinct from thebands known to contain BDNF and NGF sequences. It should e noted thatthe EcoRI fragments of genomic mouse, rat, and chicken DNA observed byhybridization with the M3/4 probe are in every case coincident with oneof the novel bands obtained by hybridization with the R1B/2C probe.These are the 19.0 kb EcoRI fragment in mouse DNA (X1 in FIG. 13), the7.3 kb fragment in rat DNA (Xl in FIG. 13), and the 2.6 kb band inchicken DNA (X in FIG. 13). This suggests that portions of the same genewere amplified from rat DNA using the 1B/2C primer pair, and from mouseDNA using the 3/4 primer pair. Thus, at least one novel gene apparentlyshares homology with NGF and BDNF genes in all four of the boxes ofhomology noted above.

The concept of the homology boxes between NGF, BDNF, and additionalmembers of the gene family (e.g. "M3/4" also known as NT-3) has beenexpressed here primarily in terms of primary amino acid sequence, andmethods for the identification of novel genes in the family. However, itis important to note that there are likely to be additional implicationsfor the secondary and tertiary structure of these neurotrophic factors,their interactions with specific receptors, and rational design of novelmolecules with potential therapeutic value.

For example, there are 6 Cys residues in NGF, and all have been shown tobe involved in disulfide bonds. Numbering them from most N-terminal tomost C-terminal as Cys1-Cys6, it is known that the disulfide bridgesinvolve Cys1-Cys4, Cys2-Cys5, Cys3-Cys6. The positions of all 6 Cysresidues are conserved between NGF and BDNF, and the positions of 3 Cysresidues in the portion of "M3/4" sequenced to date line up exactly withCys4, Cys5, Cys6, of NGF and BDNF. This suggests that the secondarystructure of all members of the gene family may be closely related, andlargely determined by the conserved Cys residues. It should be notedthat the homology boxes pointed out for BDNF and NGF cover 5 of the 6Cys residues (Cys1 in Box 1, Cys2 in Box 2, Cys3 and Box 3, Cys5 andCys6 in Box 4). This supports the idea that these Cys residues and theirimmediate neighbors play an important role in determining the generalstructure of these neurotrophic factors. The structural determinants forspecific interaction with high affinity receptors for each of theneurotrophic factors presumably reside in unique portions of eachmolecule.

Accordingly, novel chimeric genes may be produced by recombinationbetween family members (e.g. by in vitro recombination, or by directgene synthesis) at any of the four homology boxes already described, orelsewhere in the molecule. Such chimeric proteins are likely to havesimilar secondary structure, because of conservation of Cys residues,and other amino acid residues, but may have novel biological properties.For example, a BDNF/NGF chimeric protein may be bifunctional in terms ofinteraction with both BDNF and NGF receptors. Chimeric proteins may alsodiffer from parent molecule(s) in terms of dimerization, and otherphysico-chemical properties. Chimeric proteins might also be able tofunction as antagonists of either parent molecule.

Active fragments of BDNF/NGF may be used to design other family membersbased on knowledge of critical "core" regions for appropriate folding,plus information regarding which regions are required for type-specificinteraction with receptors.

Comparison of new family members (e.g. "M3/4") with already known familymembers may be used to reveal new boxes of homology that can help guidethe search for additional members of the BDNF/NGF gene family. Forexample, "M3/4" comparison with BDNF reveals some useful homology boxes.One of particular interest involves the fourth conserved Cys residue,the only one not in the previously noted Boxes 1-4. There is actually arather long segment of identity or conserved amino acid substitutionshared by BDNF and "M3/4", which includes this Cys residue, namely:His-Trp-Asn-Ser-Gln-Cys-(Arg or Lys)-Thr(Thr or Ser)-Gln-(Ser orThr)-Tyr-Val-Arg-Ala-Leu-Thr. Within this region one could choose atleast two homology boxes for the synthesis of useful degenerateoligonucleotide primers (e.g. His-Trp-Asn-Ser-Gln-Cys requires only96-fold degeneracy for an 18-mer primer, or 48-fold degeneracy for a17-mer; Tyr-Val-Arg-Ala-Leu-Thr would also be a useful box).

14. EXAMPLE: INCREASED EXPRESSION OF BDNF IN NEUROBLASTOMA CELLS 14.1.Materials and Methods 14.1.1. Cell Lines

CHP100, CHP126, CHP134, CHP234, LAN1, LAN5, NB9, SY5Y, Y79, FO1, BU2,HO1, HL60, and COL320 are cell lines maintained in the laboratory of Dr.Fred Alt, who provided RNA for the Northern blot used in FIG. 15. Allcell lines were human tumor cell lines. CHP100 is a neuroepitheliomacell line; CHP126, CHP134, CHP234, LAN1, LAN5, NB9, and SY5Y areneuroblastoma cell lines; Y79 is a retinoblastoma cell line; FO1, BU2,HO1 are melanoma cell lines, HL60 is a promyelocytic leukemia cell line,COL320 is a neuroendocrine colon carcinoma cell line.

14.1.2. Preparation of RNA

RNA was prepared and Northern blots performed essentially as desribed inSection 8.1.1, supra, using a full-length human cDNA probe. 10 μg oftotal RNA was in each lane of the gel used to produce the Northern blotof FIG. 14, except that the RNA in LAN1 was less heavily loaded and forSY5Y one microgram of poly(A)⁺ RNA was used.

14.2. Results

FIG. 14 depicts the results of Northern blot analysis of BDNF probehybridized to a panel of RNA samples obtained from a variety of humancell lines. An abundance of RNA which hybridized to BDNF probe wasdetected in CHP234 and LAN5 cell lines, and lower amounts were found inCHP126 and CHP134. All of the positive lines were derived from humanneuroblastoma tumors.

15. EXAMPLE: ACTIVITY-DEPENDENT REGULATION OF BDNF- AND NGF-mRNAs IN THERAT HIPPOCAMPUS IS MEDIATED BY NON-NMDA-GLUTAMATE RECEPTORS 15.1.Materials and Methods 15.1.1. Treatment of Rats With Kainic Acid

The rats usually received diazepam (Valium) 90 minutes afterintraperitoneal injection of kainic acid 12 mg/kg to suppress extensiveseizure activity. As shown in FIGS. 18A and 18B, Valium given afterkainic acid did not interfere with the further increase in BDNF- andNGF-mRNA levels. Rats which did not receive Valium showed similarincreases of BDNF- and NGF-mRNA levels in hippocampus 3 hours afterkainic acid, compared with animals given kainic acid followed by Valium.

15.1.2. Preparation of Hippocampal Cultures

Hippocampi were prepared from E17-day old rat embryos, dissected andincubated for 20 minutes at 37° C. in phosphate buffered saline (PBS)without calcium or magnesium ions, but containing 10mM glucose, 1 mg/mlalbumin, 6 μg/ml DNAase and 1 mg/ml papain. After washing with thesolution without papain, the hippocampal cells were carefullydissociated with a fire polished pasteur pipette. Cells were collectedby centrifugation at low speed, resuspended in DMEM, supplemented with10% fetal calf serum and plated on plastic culture dishes (0.5×10⁶ cellsper 35 mm) which were precoated with poly-DL-ornithine (0.5 mg/ml) andlaminin (5 μg/ml). Three hours after plating, the medium was changed toa serum-free one, which contained the supplements as described by Brewerand Cotman (Brain Res. 497:65, 1989), but lacking glutamate. Neuronsremained viable up to three weeks in culture and were usually used forthe experiments at day 7 after plating.

15.1.3. Amplification of RNA

Total cellular RNA was extracted as described by Chomcynski and Sacci(Anal. Biochem., 1987, 162:156-159) from 0.5×10⁶ cells after theaddition of a shortened NGF cRNA recovery standard (30 fg). NGF mRNA andcRNA were coamplified in a combined one tube reversetranscription/polymerase chain reaction (RT/PCR) containing 1/5 of theextracted RNA, 1×RT/PCR buffer (10 mM Tris-HCl pH 8.3, 50 mM KCl, 1.5 mMMgCl₂, 0.1 mg/ml gelatin, 0.1% Triton X-100), 0.25 mM dNTP, 0.1 μM each5' and 3' primer, 5U RNasin (Promega), 3.2 U AMV-reverse transcriptase(Life Science) and 2U Taq Polymerase (Genofit) in a total volume of 25μl. The mixture was overlaid with mineral oil, incubated at 41° C. for30 minutes, heated to 92° C. for 60 seconds, followed by primerannealing at 55° C. for 60 seconds and primer extension at 72° C. for 60seconds) The amplification products (203 bp for NGF mRNA and 153 bp forrecovery standard) were separated on a 3% NuSieve/Agarose 3:1 gel (FMCBioproducts), alkali-blotted to a Hybond N plus membrane (Amersham) andhybridized as described (Heumann, R. and Thoenen, H., 1986, J. Biol.Chem. 261:9246; Lindhold et al., 1988, J. Biol. Chem. 263:16348). Forabsolute quantification, known amounts of in vitro transcribed NGF mRNAand recovery standard were coamplified in parallel reactions. Recently,a similar method was described by Wang et al. (PNAS 86:9717-9721, 1989).

15.2. Results and Discussion

BDNF and NGF are members of a gene family with about 50% amino acididentity (Leibrock et al., 1989, Nature 341:149). The molecules exhibitstrictly conserved domains. Contained within these domains are the 6cysteine residues most probably involved in the stabilization of thethree dimensional structure of these molecules, which is necessary fortheir biological activity. However, there are also variable domains inBDNF and NGF which determine their different neuronal specificity(Lindsay et al., 1985, Dev. Biol 112:319; Johnson et al., 1986, J.Neurosci. 6:3031; Hofer, M. and Barde, Y. 1988, Nature 331:261;Rodriguez-Tebar et al., 1989, Dev. Biol. 136:296). Moreover, thedifference between these two neurotrophic molecules is also indicated bytheir sites of synthesis. NGF is expressed both in the periphery(Korsching, S. and Thoenen, H., 1983, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.80:3513; Ebendal et al., 1983, Exp. Cell Res. 148:311; Heumann et al.,1984, EMBO J. 3:3183; Dhelton, D. L. and Reichardt, L. F., 1984, Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 81:7951) and in the central nervous system (CNS)(Korsching et al., 1985, EMBO J. 4:1389; Shelton, D. L. and Reichardt,L. F., 1986, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 83:2714; Whittemore et al.,1986, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 83:817; Large et al., 1986, Science234:352). The densities of innervation by NGF-responsive neurons reflectthe levels of NGF in the corresponding target tissues (Korsching, S. andThoenen, H., 1983, proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 80:3513; Ebendal etal., 1983, Exp. Cell Res. 148:311; Heumann et al., 1984, EMBO J. 3:3183;Dhelton, D. L. and Reichardt, L. F., 1984, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.81:7951; Korsching et al., 1985, EMBO J. 4:1389; Shelton, D. L. andReichardt, L. F., 1986, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 83:2714;Whittemore et al., 1986, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 83:817; Large etal., 1986, Science 234:352). In contrast to NGF, BDNF is predominantlyexpressed in the CNS in neurons, and the levels of BDNF-mRNA areconsiderably higher than those of NGF-mRNA, e.g. about 50-fold in thehippocampus. In the peripheral nervous system, NGF is synthesized byvarious non-neuronal cell types (Bandtlow et al., 1987, EMBO J. 6:891),whereas in the brain it is mainly localized in neurons, as demonstratedby in-situ hybridization (Rennert, P. D. and Heinrich, G., 1986,Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 138:813; Ayer-LeLievre et al., 1988,Science 240:1339; Whittemore et al., 1988, J. Neurosci. Res. 20:403).However, cultured type-1 astrocytes have also been shown to producesubstantial quantities of NGF (Lindsay, R. M., 1979, Nature 282:80;Furukawa et al., 1987, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 142:395). Therelative contribution of neurons and astrocytes to the NGF synthesizedin brain is not yet known.

In view of the predominant expression of both BDNF- and NGF-mRNAs incentral nervous system neurons, we investigated whether the levels ofthese two mRNAs are influenced by neuronal activity and if so, whichtransmitter(s) could possibly be involved in the regulation. In a firstseries of experiments, we prepared neuronal cultures from embryonic(E17) rat hippocampus. As shown in FIG. 15A, depolarization of thehippocampal neurons with high (50 mM) potassium resulted in an increasein BDNF-mRNA. Maximal levels were reached between 3 and 6 hours afterincreasing the potassium concentration. The potassium-mediated increasein BDNF-mRNA could be inhibited by omitting calcium ions from the mediumand it was also reduced by inhibiting calcium influx by the calciumchannel blocker nifedipine (FIG. 15B).

Because the hippocampal cultures used consisted of a mixed population ofneurons exhibiting different patterns of transmitter and receptorexpression, we studied the effect of various physiological and syntheticreceptor agonists on BDNF- and NGF-mRNA expression. The resultspresented in Table V show that of all the substances tested, kainicacid, a glutamate receptor agonist (Monaghan et al., 1989, Annu. Rev.Pharmacol. Toxicol. 29:365), produced by far the largest increase inBDNF-mRNA in hippocampal neurons. In contrast, other molecules, such ascarbachol (a muscarinic receptor agonist) and to a lesser extenthistamine and bradykinin, elevated slightly, but significantly,BDNF-mRNA (Table VI). Because the levels of NGF-mRNA in the hippocampalneurons were very low, we established a quantitative polymerase chainreaction (PCR) method suitable for determining changes in NGF-mRNA.Using this method we found that, like BDNF-mRNA, NGF-mRNA levels werealso increased by potassium and kainic acid in hippocampal neurons (FIG.16).

As shown in FIG. 17, the maximal increase in BDNF-mRNA in thehippocampal neurons was obtained with about 25 μM kainic acid. A furtherincrease in the kainic acid concentration resulted in a decrease of theBDNF-mRNA levels, which most probably reflects toxic effects of the highconcentrations of kainic acid on hippocampal neurons (FIG. 17). Aglutamate receptor-mediated neurotoxicity has previously been reported(Choi et al., 1987, J. Neurosci. 7:357; Rothman, S. M. and Olney, J. W.,1987, Trends Neurosci. 10:299; Choi, D. W., 1988, Neuron 1:623) forvarious central neurons following the application of analogues of theexcitatory amino acid glutamate. However, the concentrations of kainicacid necessary to enhance the expression of BDNF- and NGF-mRNA in thehippocampal neurons could clearly be separated from the concentrationsresulting in neurotoxicity.

To investigate the effects of kainic acid in more detail, we studiedwhether the increase in BDNF-mRNA could be blocked by any of the knownglutamate receptor antagonists (Monaghan et al., 1989, Annu. Rev.Pharmacol. Toxicol. 29:365). Kynurenic acid, a broad spectrum glutamatereceptor antagonist, as well as CNQX, a competitive inhibitor ofnon-NMDA receptors (Monaghan et al., 1989, Annu. Rev. Pharmacol.Toxicol. 29:365), completely blocked the kainic acid-mediated increasein BDNF-mRNA in hippocampal neurons (Table VII). On the other hand, MK801, which specifically blocks NMDA receptors, was ineffective inblocking the rise of BDNF-mRNA in these neurons. Moreover, NMDA itselfdid not change BDNF-mRNA levels (Table VI). This shows that kainic acidacts directly via its receptors and that the effect is not due to therelease of endogenous glutamate (which also acts on NMDA receptors). Itcan thus be concluded that kainic acid in vitro elevates BDNF-mRNAlevels via non-NMDA glutamate receptors.

                  TABLE VI                                                        ______________________________________                                        EFFECT OF VARIOUS RECEPTOR AGONISTS                                           ON BDNF-mRNA EXPRESSION IN CULTURED NEURONS                                   Addition               % of Control                                           ______________________________________                                        none                   100 ± 5                                             carbachol (50 μM)   220 ± 25                                            carbachol (50 μM) + atropine 10 (μM)                                                            85 ± 15                                            nicotin (100 μM)    110 ± 7                                             histamine (50 μM)   150 ± 12                                            serotonin (100 μM)  95 ± 6                                              dopamine (100 μM)   115 ± 7                                             norepinephrine (25 μM)                                                                             75 ± 10                                            substance P (1 μM)  85 ± 9                                              somatostatin (1 μM) 110 ± 8                                             bradykinin (1 μM)   155 ± 15                                            kainic acid (25 μM) 1365 ± 70                                           NMDA (25 μM)        105 ± 10                                            ______________________________________                                    

                  TABLE VII                                                       ______________________________________                                        EFFECT OF ANTAGONISTS TO                                                      THE DIFFERENT GLUTAMATE RECEPTORS ON THE                                      KAINIC ACID INDUCED EXPRESSION OF BDNF-mRNA                                   Addition                  % of Control                                        ______________________________________                                        none                       100 ± 60                                        Kainic acid (25 μM)    1250 ± 60                                        Kynurenic acid (1 mM)      70 ± 6                                          Kynurenic acid (1 mM) + Kainic acid (25 μM)                                                           84 ± 7                                          CNQX (10 μM)           109 ± 6                                          CNQX (10 μM) + Kainic acid (25 μM)                                                                105 ± 7                                          MK-801 (5 μM)           96 ± 5                                          MK-801 (5 μM) + Kainic acid (25 μM)                                                               1130 ± 80                                        ______________________________________                                    

To evaluate the physiological significance of our in vitro observations,we studied whether similar mechanisms were also operating in vivo. Wetreated adult Wistar rats of both sexes weighing 180-200 g with 12 mg/kgof kainic acid. After various time periods, we determined the changes inBDNF- and NGF-mRNAs in the hippocampus and cortex by Northern blotanalysis. FIGS. 18A and 18B show that kainic acid elicited an increasein the levels of BDNF- and NGF-mRNAs in both brain regions. The increasein BDNF-mRNA was substantially larger than that of NGF-mRNA. Moreover,for as long as 24 hours after administration of kainic acid, the mRNAlevels remained elevated. The time-course of BDNF- and NGF-mRNAs changesshowed that the maximal increase in the hippocampus was reachedapproximately 3 hours after the administration of kainic acid (FIGS. 18Aand 18B). It is interesting to note that the increase in BDNF- andNGF-mRNAs in the hippocampus was preceded by an increase in c-fos-mRNA;the two phenomena may be causally related, as was recently shown to bethe case for sciatic nerve after lesion (Hengerer et al., 1990, Proc.Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 87:3899). Moreover, there is a delay in theincrease of both BDNF- and NGF-mRNAs in the cerebral cortex comparedwith the increase in the hippocampus, which indicates that the signalsleading to an enhanced expression of BDNF and NGF spread from thehippocampus to other brain regions. This observation is in keeping withprevious reports (Morgan et al., 1987, Science 237:192) showing that theincrease in c-fos elicited by the convulsant metrazole occurred first inthe hippocampus and then in the cortex.

After previous studies had provided evidence that NMDA receptors areinvolved in the regulation of hippocampal mRNAs, such as NGFI-A (Cole etal., 1989, Nature 340:474), we then studied whether or not the NMDAreceptor antagonists MK 801 and ketamine could block the increase inBDNF- and NGF-mRNAs in vivo. However, confirming our results in vitro.MK 801 did not inhibit the kainic acid-mediated increase in hippocampalBDNF-mRNA, although it effectively suppressed seizures resulting fromNMDA receptor activation (FIG. 19). Most probably this NMDA receptoractivation results from endogenous glutamate released by kainic acid(Biziere, K. and Coyle, T., Neurosci., 1978, Lett. 8:303; McGeer et al.,1978, Brain. Res. 139:381). Likewise, the increase in NGF-mRNA inhippocampus after kainic acid treatment was neither prevented by MK 801nor by ketamine. In a previous study (Gall, C. M. and Isackson, P. J.,1989, Science 245:758), it was shown that electrolytical lesions causinglimbic seizures elevate NGF-mRNA in rat hippocampus. However, thepresent results obtained with MK 801 and kainic acid showed a cleardissociation between induction of seizures and increases in BDNF and NGFexpression. Diazepam (Valium) treatment of rats prior to kainic acidinjections completely blocked the increase in BDNF- and NGF-mRNAs in therat hippocampus (FIG. 19). The blocking effect of diazepam on theincrease of BDNF- and NGF-mRNA most probably resulted from thesuppression of neuronal activity via the inhibitory GABAergic system.However, 90 minutes after the administration of kainic acid (i.e.,approximately 30 minutes after the start of convulsion), the increase inBDNF- and NGF-mRNA could no longer be blocked by diazepam, indicatingthat a relatively short period of augmented activity may be sufficientto initiate the cascade of events leading to an augmented expression ofthe mRNAs of the two neurotrophic factors.

The present investigation showed that non-NMDA receptors may be involvedin the regulation of BDNF- and NGF-mRNA in hippocampus, thusdistinguishing this regulatory mechanism from that previously describedby Cole et al. (Cole et al., 1989, Nature 340:474) which concluded thathippocampal mRNAs encoding early genes seemed to be regulated via theNMDA-subtype of glutamate receptors. It has been reported that some ofthe effects of kainic acid on neurons can also be mediated by thequisqualate type of glutamate receptors (Monaghan et al., 1989, Annu.Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 29:365).

In conclusion, the present study showed that neuronal activity regulatesthe levels of mRNAs encoding the neurotrophic factors BDNF and NGF inthe rat hippocampus and cortex. Of all the substances tested, kainicacid, acting via the non-NMDA glutamate receptors, elevated BDNF- andNGF-mRNAs both in vivo and in hippocampal neuronal cultures. Incontrast, in the periphery there is no evidence that NGF synthesis innon-neuronal cells is regulated by conventional transmitter substancesor neuropeptides released by innervating (NGF responsive) neurons (Barthet al., 1984, J. Cell Biol. 99:839; Hellweg et al., 1988, Exp. Cell Res.179:18). BDNF is predominantly expressed in the CNS and there is atleast a partial overlap between the central pathways using glutamate asa neurotransmitter and regions shown to be relatively rich in BDNF- andNGF-mRNA (Hofer et al., EMBO J., in press; Monaghan et al., 1989, Annu.Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 29:365). In particular, there are strikingsimilarities between the distribution of NGF-mRNA as demonstrated by insitu hybridization (Hofer et al., EMBO J., in press) and kainic acidreceptors visualized by autoradiography in hippocampus, cerebral cortex,and cerebellum (Monaghan et al., 1989, Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol.29:365). The observations are compatible with the interpretation thatglutamate represents the physiological transmitter regulating BDNF- andNGF-mRNAs in the CNS.

16. EXAMPLE: BRAIN-DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR INCREASES SURVIVAL ANDDIFFERENTIATED FUNCTIONS OF RAT SEPTAL CHOLINERGIC NEURONS IN CULTURE16.1. Materials and Methods 16.1.1. Preparation of Dissociated Cells andCell Culture Conditions

The septal region from rats (Sprague-Dawley) after 17 days of gestationwas dissected free from the surrounding tissue. Tissue fragments werepooled, washed three times with Ham's F-10, and then transferred to a 35mm tissue culture dish and minced. A single cell suspension was made byincubating the tissue with 0.25% trypsin for 20 minutes at 37° C.Following the inactivation of the trypsin by a five minute incubation atroom temperature in growth medium (infra), containing 50 ug/mldeoxyribonuclease type 1 (Sigma), the cells were dissociated by passingthe fragments repeatedly through the constricted tip of a Pasteur pipet.The dissociated cells were then centrifuged at 500 xg for 45 seconds Thesupernatant was removed and recentrifuged. The loose cell pellets wereresuspended and combined in growth medium, and the cell yield wasdetermined by use of a hemocytometer. Finally, the cells were platedinto 6 mm wells which had been coated with polyornithine (10 μg/ml) andlaminin (10 μg/ml). The cell viability was checked, after 24 hours inculture, by the ability of the cells to exclude trypan blue.

The normal growth medium, 5HS/N3, for cultures composed of neurons andglia contained: 5% (v/v) horse serum (Gibco), 1% N3 additives (v/v)(Romijn et al., 1982, Dev. Brain Res. 2:583-589), 0.5% (v/v) glutamine(200 mM, Gibco), and 0.25% (v/v) penicillin-streptomycin (10,000units/ml, 10,000 mcg/ml respectively, Gibco) in Dulbecco's modifiedEagle's medium (DMEM). Neuronal-enriched cultures were prepared byreplacing the growth medium, five to six hours after plating, with DMEMcontaining: 1% N3 additives, 0.5% glutamine, and 0.25% penicillin andstreptomycin. In both conditions, treatment with cytosine arabinoside (1μM for 24 hours) was used to limit glial cell proliferation.

16.1.2. Assay of Choline Acetyltransferase Activity

The growth medium was removed from the cultures by rinsing the cellstwice with 100 μl of PBS. The cells were lysed via one freeze-thaw cycleand a 15 minute incubation at 37° C. in 50 mM KH₂ PO₄ pH 6.7 containing200 mM NaCl and 0.25% (v/v) Triton x-100. Two microliters of the celllysate was removed and assayed for CAT activity according to themicro-Fonnum procedure (Fonnum, F, 1975, J. Neurochem. 24:407-409). Thefinal substrate composition consisted of 0.2 mM [¹⁴ C] Acetyl-CoA (NEN,54.4, mCi/mmol), 300 mM NaCl, 8 mM choline bromide, 20 mMethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, and 0.1 mM neostigmine in 50 mM NaH₂PO₄ (pH 7.4) buffer. At these enzyme and substrate concentrations, theenzymatic reaction was linear for 90-120 minutes. The specificity of theinduction for choline acetyltransferase was tested by the addition of aspecific inhibitor of CAT activity,N-hydroxyethyl-4-(1-napthylvinyl)pyridium (HNP), during the assay(White, H. L. and Cavallito, C. J., 1970, J. Neurochem. 17:1579-1589).

16.1.3. Assay of Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) Activity

The level of AChE present in the lysates was measured by the methods ofPotter (Potter, L. T., 1967, J. Pharmacology and ExperimentalTherapeutics 156:500-506) and Johnson and Russell (Johnson, C. D. andRussell, R. L., 1975, Anal Biochem. 64:229-238) with severalmodifications. Lysates prepared in 50 mM KH₂ PO₄ buffer pH 6.7containing 200 mM NaCl and 0.25% (v/v) Triton x-100, were combined with[³ H] acetylcholine iodide (NEN, NET-113, 73.3 mCi/mmol), ethopropazine(0.1 mM) in 50 mM KH₂ PO₄ pH 7.0. Following a 15 minute incubation at37° C., the reaction was terminated by the addition of 100 μl of a stopbuffer solution containing: 1M chloroacetic acid, 0.5M NaOH, and 2.0MNaCl. Specific AChE activity was determined in the presence of 1.0 (10⁶)M neostigmine.

16.1.4. Measurement of High Affinity Choline Uptake

Choline uptake via a high affinity, Na+-dependent mechanism was assayedessentially by the procedure of Vaca and Pilar, 1979 (Vaca, K. andPilar, G., 1979, J. Gen. Physiol. 73:605-628). The cells were washedonce with 100 μl Ham's F-10, followed by a 100 μl rinse with Tyrodessolution. Following a 10 minute depolarization induced by Tyrodessolution containing 25 mM potassium, the cells were incubated for 20minutes at room temperature with [³ H] choline (NEN, NET-109, 0.11 μM,86.7 Ci/mmol) in normal Na+ or Li+ containing Tyrodes solution. Theuptake reaction was stopped by rinsing the cells twice with PBS. Theaccumulated choline was extracted by incubating the cultures for atleast 20 minutes with 100 μl of cold acetone containing 1N formic acid.The soluble fraction was then removed and counted. The specific cholineuptake is the difference between the level of total and theNa+-independent choline uptake.

16.1.5. Histochemical Staining for Acetycholinesterase

Cholinergic cells were identified by histochemically staining foracetylcholinesterase by a modification of the staining method ofGeneser-Jensen and Blackstadt, (1971, Z. Zellforsch. 114:460-481).Following fixation of the cultures in 4% paraformaldehyde, the cellswere incubated 5-6 days at 4° C. in the presence of the AChE substratesolution composed of the following: 4 mM acetylithiocholine iodine, 2 mMcopper sulfate, 10 mM glycine and 10 μg/ml gelatine in 50 mM acetatebuffer pH 5.0. Visualization of the reaction product was accomplished aspreviously described (Hartikka, J. and Hefti, F., 1988, J. Neurosci.8:2967-2985).

16.1.6. Immunohistochemical Staining for the NGF-Receptor

Cultures were washed twice with DMEM and then fixed with 4%paraformaldehyde. The cells were then treated for 3-4 hours with asodium phosphate buffer pH 7.4 containing 5% bovine serum albumin, 0.02%triton x-100 and 5% sucrose (Hartikka, J. and Hefti, F., 1988, J.Neurosci. 8:2967-2985). The NGF-R was detected utilizing the monoclonalantibody 192-IgG (Taniuchi, M. and Johnson, E., 1985, J. Cell Biol.101:1100-1106; Chandler et. al., 1984, J. Biol. Chem. 259:6882-6889) andat 1:1000 dilution in buffer containing 5% horse serum. The cultureswere incubated with the diluted antibody for 15-18 hours at 4° C. Thebound mouse immunoglobulin was detected utilizing biotinylated horseantimouse IgG (1:200 Vector). The immunoreactive cells were identifiedby using 3',3' diaminobenzidine as the substrate for the boundperoxidase enzyme.

16.1.7. Purification of BDNF and NGF

The purification of BDNF, from porcine brain, and NGF, from male mousesubmaxilliary gland, was conducted according to previously publishedprotocols (Barde et al., 1982, EMBO J. 1:549-553; Lindsay et al., 1985,Dev. Biol. 112:319-328). The recombinant BDNF, used for a portion ofthese studies, has been characterized previously (Maisonpierre et al.,1990, Science. 247:1446-141).

16.2. Results

Cultures of septal cells produced elaborate neurite outgrowth onpolyornithine-laminin coated wells, with many of the cells displaying acharacteristic neuronal phase-bright soma by 24 hours (FIGS. 20A and20B). Continued neurite outgrowth resulted in a progressive increase inthe extent of cell-cell contact at days 2 and 4 invitro (compare FIGS.20C and 20D with FIGS. 20E and 20F). There were very few non-neuronalcells in the cultures even after 4 days, as noted by the absence offlattened phase-dark cells. To assess the effects of BDNF on septalcholinergic neuron survival in culture, a histochemical stain for AChEand a immunohistochemical stain for the NGF-receptor was used. Typicalmorphologies of AChE positive neurons are shown in FIGS. 20G and 20H.Several NGF-receptor positive neurons are shown in FIG. 20I.

BDNF elicited a 2.4-fold increase in the number of AChE positive cellsin low density cultures (defined as cell densities between66,700-133,300 cells/cm²) of embryonic rat septal cells as shown in FIG.21A. At the same cell densities the effect of NG was slightly less(1.9-fold). The fining that BDNF as well as NGF can produce an increasein the number of AChE positive neurons in septal cultures prompted us toexamine whether these two factors act upon similar or distinct neuronalpopulations. As shown in the third panel of FIG. 21A, concurrentaddition of saturating levels of BDNF and NGF lead to no greaterincrease in the number of AChE positive neurons than that seen witheither factor alone. In terms of neuronal survival, these resultssuggest that the cholinergic neurons in rat septal cultures whichrespond to BDNF or NGF must be closely overlapping populations.

The effect of BDNF upon the survival of AChE positive neurons wasdependent upon the density at which the cells were grown (FIG. 21A). Athigh plating densities (200,000-266,000 cells/cm²)neither BDNF alone norin combination with NGF produced an increase in the number of AChEexpressing neurons. This may be due to increased endogenous levels ofneurotrophic activity, or alternatively, survival promoting effects ofthe increased cell-cell contact occurring at the higher cell densities.

At low cell density, the number of AChE positive cells increased as afunction of BDNF concentration, with a maximal response observed at adose of 10 ng/ml, which increased the number of AChE positive cells/wellfrom control values of 169.2±12.9 to 388.0±26.2 (a 2.5 fold increase) intreated cultures. In comparison, a maximal response to NGF was observedat 50 ng/ml and produced an increase in AChE positive cells/well from121.0±7.6 to 231.7±12.9 (a 1.9 fold increase). The plateau phase in theresponse curve appeared to be stable for both BDNF and NGF, in thatthere was no reduction in the number of AChE positive neurons at dosesas high as 100 ng/ml.

It is apparent that in low density cultures, both BDNF and NGF arecapable of increasing the number of cells detected by AChEhistochemistry. It is possible that this increase is due to a rescue ofcholinergic cells dying in culture in the absence of growth factor, torecruitment of precursor cells, or to the induction of the cholinergicmarker, AChE. To attempt to differentiate among these possibilities,delayed addition experiments were conducted (FIG. 22) in a series ofcultures maintained for a total of 12 days. One set of cultures, treatedfive to six hours after plating, was maintained in the presence of BDNFor NGF for the entire 12 days. A second set of cultures was establishedwithout growth factors for 5 days and then treated with BDNF or NGF forthe last seven days (-5/+7). When comparing these two sets of cultures,the response to NGF or BDNF added after 5 days was much the same as wasobserved when the cells were grown continuously in the presence of thefactors (compare solid and cross hatched bars in FIG. 22). The resultswere strikingly different, however, in a third set of cultures in whichBDNF or NGF was only present for the final 5 days (-7/+5) cultures).Under these conditions, neither NGF nor BDNF was capable of enhancingthe number of AChE positive cells. In other experiments, it has beenestablished that exposure of septal neurons to either NGF or BDNF for aslittle as 3-4 days is sufficient to produce a large increase in AChEenzyme activity, and thus detection of cells by AChE staining.Therefore, the lack of a detectable increase in the number of AChEpositive neurons in the "-7/+5" cultures was not due to the possibilitythat the time of exposure to growth factor was insufficient to allow foran induction of AChE positive cells.

It has been shown in vivo (Montero, C. and Hefti, F., 1988, J. Neurosci.8:2986-2999; Higgins et al., 1989, Neuron. 3:247-256) as well as invitro that NGF is capable of regulating the levels of its own receptoras measured both at the mRNA and protein level. Since BDNF was found todisplay similar effects to NGF in the induction of cholinergic phenotypeand cell survival in septal cultures, the potential that BDNF mayregulate the levels of NGF-receptor, as quantitated by the numbers ofIgG-192 immunopositive cells, was tested. At 10 ng/ml, BDNF produced a3-fold increase in the number of NGF-receptor immunopositive cells, asshown in FIG. 23. Interestingly, at higher concentrations (25-100 ng/ml)the effect of BDNF was progressively less marked. Thus, the doseresponse in this instance was notably different from that observed forthe effect of BDNF on other parameters in these cultures, e.g., numberof AChE positive cells. As a positive control, the cells were treatedwith NGF at a concentration of 50 ng/ml, which also resulted in a 3-foldincrease in the number of positive cells. Therefore, on the basis ofIgG-192 staining, BDNF has an approximately equal effect to NGF onup-regulating the expression of the NGF-receptor.

In addition to effects on cell survival, the possibility that BDNF couldpromote cholinergic phenotypic traits was investigated. A linearincrease in CAT activity was found in septal cultures grown in thepresence of increasing levels of BDNF up to 50 ng/ml, where the responsesaturated at a level of 1.8 fold over control values, as shown in FIG.24A. Induction of CAT activity in parallel cultures treated with NGFreached a plateau at 25 ng/ml, representing a 3.4 fold increase overcontrol values, as shown in FIG. 24B. The response to either BDNF or NGFshowed no significant decline at three times the concentrationsufficient to produce a saturating response. The induction of CATactivity with either BDNF or NGF did not effect the level of[N-hydroxyethyl-4-(1-napthylvinyl) pyridium]HNP-independent transferaseactivity.

In light of the finding that BDNF as well as NGF elicited increased CATactivity in septal cultures, the response to concurrent treatment withboth factors was studied (Table VIII). For these experiments, twoconcentrations of BDNF were used, 5 and 25 ng/ml, which increased CATactivity by 1.4 and 2.6 fold, respectively. When NGF (50 ng/ml), whichalone increased enzyme activity by 2.8 fold, was combined with BDNF, thelevel of CAT activity reflected at least an additive effect (TableVIII). At the concentrations of BDNF used, a purely additive effect tothat of NGF would have lead to increases of 4.2 and 5.4 fold,respectively, over control values. The observed values were actuallysomewhat more than additive.

                  TABLE VIII                                                      ______________________________________                                        EFFECTS OF CO-ADDITION OF BDNF                                                AND NGF ON CAT ACTIVITY                                                                       CAT Activity                                                  Concentration (ng/ml)                                                                         (pmol/Hr/Well)                                                                             % Control                                        ______________________________________                                        Control         561.3 ± 34.8                                                                            --                                               NGF (50)        1546.3 ± 89.7                                                                           280                                              BDNF (5)        768.0 ± 25.4                                                                            140                                              BDNF (25)       1470.1 ± 66.2                                                                           260                                              NGF (50) + BDNF (5)                                                                           2767.6 ± 177.2                                                                          490                                              NGF (50) + BDNF (25)                                                                          3742.0 ± 669.3                                                                          670                                              ______________________________________                                    

Septal cells were grown for a period of 12 days in 5HS/N3 in thepresence of the indicated concentrations of trophic factors. CATactivity was determined as described. Values represent the means±S.E.M.of 4-5 determinations.

The possibility that the biological response observed with BDNFtreatment was due to a BDNF-dependent release of endogenous NGF wastested. To examine this question, a monoclonal antibody to NGF (antibody27/21, Korsching and Thoenen, 1983) was used to block any NGF-relatedresponse. As shown in Table IX, the effect of NGF on CAT activity wasgreatly reduced by anti-NGF, while the BDNF-induced response wasessentially unaffected. One should note, however, that the basal levelof CAT activity was reduced by about 20% in cultures treated withanti-NGF alone, as compared to untreated controls. Nevertheless, theobserved increase in CAT activity in septal cultures produced by BDNFappears to be a direct effect and not mediated by an increase inendogenous NGF.

                  TABLE IX                                                        ______________________________________                                        EFFECT OF ANTI-NGF ON THE ABILITY OF                                          NGF AND BDNF TO INDUCE CAT ENZYME ACTIVITY                                    CAT Activity                                                                  Concentration (ng/ml)                                                                         (pmol/HR/well)                                                                             % Control                                        ______________________________________                                        Control         517.53 ± 3.2                                                                            --                                               BDNF (25)       1021.6 ± 106.1                                                                          197                                              NGF (50)        1139.0 ± 99.1                                                                           220                                              Control + Anti-NGF                                                                            418.7 ± 27.0                                                                             81                                              BDNF + Anti-NGF 819.2 ± 68.8                                                                            158                                              NGF + Anti-NGF  551.0 ± 27.0                                                                            107                                              ______________________________________                                    

Following a 12 day growth period in 5HS/N3 in the presence of theindicated concentrations of trophic factor the septal cells (plated at adensity of 2.3 (10⁵) cell/cm²) we harvested. CAT activity was determinedas described in the Experimental Procedures section. Values representthe mean±S.E.M. of 6 determinations.

The possibility that AChE activity is coordinately regulated along withCAT activity by BDNF or NGF was also tested (FIG. 25). In contrast toCAT activity, the dose response of AChE to BDNF or NGF appeared quitesimilar in that the enzyme activity increased linearly up to aconcentration of 50 ng/ml. At this concentration, NGF and BDNF increasedAChE activity 274% and 234% respectively, as compared to the non-treatedcontrol values.

The time course of BDNF or NGF induced increase in CAT activity wasinvestigated (FIG. 26). CAT activity in cultures treated with 50 ng/mlof BDNF increased to 170% of control values by 3 days. This increasecontinued until day 6, where it plateaued at 2.5-fold above controlvalues throughout the remainder of the period tested. In contrast, theCAT response to NGF (50 ng/ml) administration was more rapid, with theinduced level reaching 2.5 fold over control by day 3. The increase inCAT activity continued to rise linearly, reaching a value of 3.2 foldover the controls after 12 days.

Astrocytes, grown in culture for a period of time, have been shown tosynthesize a variety of neurotrophic activities, in addition to NGF(Lindsay, R. M., 1979, Nature 282:80-82; Lindsay et al., 1982, BrainRes. 243:329-343; Alderson et al., 1989, Dev. Brain. Res. 48:229-241).Although we have ruled out the possibility that our present observationson BDNF are mediated through an increase in levels of NGF, it isconceivable that BDNF may act indirectly by modulating expression ofother neurotrophic factors, especially in glial cells. To assess thepossibility that nonneuronal cells might influence the effect of BDNF onCAT activity in septal cultures, we compared the response of cholinergicneurons to BDNF in mixed glial-neuronal cultures and neuron-enrichedcultures (FIG. 27). In neuron-enriched cultures, the response of CATactivity to BDNF displayed a bell-shaped curve; a maximal increase wasachieved at a dose of 5 ng/ml of BDNF and at a concentration of 25 ng/mlthere was a significant decline in enzymatic activity (p>0.001,comparing 15 to 25 ng/ml of BDNF). Similar to the result shown in FIG.24A, the CAT response to BDNF in the presence of a confluent glial layerwas linear, in this case up to 25 ng/ml of BDNF, the highest dosetested. In the presence of nonneuronal cells higher levels of BDNF wererequired to produce an equivalent increase in CAT activity to that foundin similarly treated neuron-enriched cultures. Notwithstanding, theability of BDNF to maximally stimulate CAT activity in the septalcholinergic neurons was essentially the same in the presence or absenceof glial cells.

On the basis of CAT and AChE activity, it is apparent that BDNF can actsimilarly to NGF in enhancing cholinergic phenotypic markers. To examinethis further, the effect of BDNF on the level of Na+-dependent,high-affinity choline uptake was compared to that of NGF (FIG. 28).Cells grown for 12 days in the presence of 50 ng/ml of BDNF accumulatedcholine to a level 3.8 fold over that of the non-treated controls. Inparallel cultures, NGF (25 ng/ml) induced a 2.3 fold increase in cholineaccumulation.

16.3. Discussion

In comparison to its established effects on peripheral neurons (Barde etal., 1982, EMBO J. 1:549-553; Lindsay et al., 1985, Dev. Biol.112:319-328; Davies et al., 1986, J. Neurosci. 6:1897-1904; Hofer, M,and Barde, Y., 1988, Nature 331:262-262), the neuronal specificity ofBDNF within the central nervous system is less well characterized. Todate, the only known responsive CNS neurons are a small subpopulation ofThy-1 positive retinal ganglion cells first identified in cultures ofE17 rat retina (Johnson et al., 1986, J. Neurosci. 6:3031-3038). Furtherstudies have also established effects of BDNF upon adult retinalganglion cells in explant cultures (Thanos et al., 1989, Eur. J. Neuro.1:19-26). In this study, we have shown that BDNF increases the survivalof cultured cholinergic neurons from the embryonic rat septum, as shownby AChE histochemical staining, and increases the expression of variouscholinergic phenotypic markers, i.e., enzymatic activity of AChE and CATand high affinity choline uptake. In addition, BDNF was found toincrease expression of the NGF receptor in septal cultures.

In initial experiments, we found that BDNF increased the number of AChEpositive neurons in E17 septal cultures by approximately 2 fold. As withNGF ((Hartikka, J. and Hefti, F., 1988, J. Neurosci. 8:2967-2985) thiseffect was most apparent at low cell densities. Interestingly,co-addition of NGF and BDNF were ineffective in further increasing thenumber of AChE positive cells over the level observed in the presence ofeither growth factor alone. This observation strongly suggests that BDNFand NGF act largely upon the same population of septal cholinergicneurons.

As initially reported for NGF (Hefti et al., 1985, Neuroscience1:55-68), BDNF did not enhance cholinergic neuron survival in culturesestablished at relatively high cell densities. As a proportion of thecells plated, cholinergic neuron survival was found to be higher at highcell density than at low cell density, even in the absence of anyneurotrophic factor. There are several possible explanations that mayaccount for this including increased cell-cell contact, beneficialeffects of increased numbers of nonneuronal cells or a more thanproportional increase in endogenous neurotrophic activity. In terms ofthe latter possibility, we found no indication of substantiallyincreased levels of endogenous NGF since addition of an excess ofanti-NGF to untreated high density cultures only reduced basal CATactivity by 20%. In such cultures, exogenous NGF was able to produce asmuch as 3.4 fold increase in CAT activity.

As observed both at the level of protein and mRNA, there are now manyreports which indicate that NGF can upregulate the expression of its ownreceptor both on cultured neurons and in vivo. In this study, we usedthe monoclonal antibody IgG-192 to detect the NGF-receptor. Thismonoclonal has been characterized on both rat sensory neurons and in ratbrain (Taniuchi, M. and Johnson, E., 1985, J. Cell Biol. 101:1100-1106).While confirming the findings of Hartikka and Hefti that NGF canup-regulate the level of its receptor in septal cultures, as noted by anincrease in the number of IgG-192 immunopositive neurons, we haveadditionally found that BDNF increases the number of IgG-192immunopositive cells by up to 3 fold. The response to BDNF was biphasicin that high concentrations, in the range of 25-100 ng/ml, failed toproduce as large an increase in the number of positive cells as wasnoted with 10 ng/ml. Interestingly, this type of dose response was quitedifferent from that seen for the BDNF induced increase in the number ofAChE positive neurons. In the latter, no reduction in the maximal effectof BDNF was seen at high concentrations. It should be noted that thelow-affinity NGF receptor has recently been shown to also bind BDNF withsimilar affinity, suggesting that the NGF and BDNF low-affinityreceptors might be identical (Rodriguez-Tebar et al. 1990, Binding ofBrain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor to the Nerve Growth Factor ReceptorNeuron. 4, 487-492).

Possible similarities in the mechanism of action of BDNF and NGF weresuggested by the findings that BDNF was equipotent with NGF in theinduction of AChE activity. Although BDNF was also found to promotecholinergic neuron survival to a similar extent to NGF, the effect ofBDNF on CAT enzymatic activity was not as great as NGF. Over severalexperiments maximal CAT induction with BDNF ranged from 1.8-2.6 fold,while values of greater than 3-fold were seen routinely with NGF. Thus,although there may be some similarities in the mechanism of action ofBDNF and NGF, it is quite probable that there are subtle differences inthe expression and regulation of their respective receptors and thecoupling of these receptors to the second messenger pathway(s) necessaryto induce CAT activity.

The supposition that differences in the level of induction of CATactivity produced by BDNF or NGF might represent differential regulatorypathways was further supported by results from time course studies.Cultured septal neurons responded to BDNF with a rise in CAT activityuntil day 6 at which time the response appeared to plateau. In contrast,induction in CAT activity in response to NGF showed a protracted linearrise from 3 to 12 days. The cessation of a rise in the induction of CATactivity at 6 days in BDNF treated cultures may be indicative of adevelopmental change in the expression of either the BDNF receptor or arequired component in the response pathway. Given that the number ofcholinergic neurons (AChE positive neurons) found in high densitycultures after 12 days appears to be independent of exogenous BDNF orNGF, it seems unlikely that differential neuronal cell death wouldaccount for the time course differences found in the induction of CATactivity by these two growth factors.

In the initial experiments involving BDNF treatment of basal forebraincholinergic cells, no assumption was made as to the primary cell type,neuronal or glial, responsive to this neurotrophic factor. Althoughstudies conducted on highly enriched cultures of peripheral neuronsstrongly suggest that BDNF has its effects directly on neurons (Lindsayet al., 1985, Dev. Biol. 112:319-328; Lindsay, 1988, J. Neurosci.7:2394-2405), it is conceivable that the neuronal effects of BDNF seenin the present study could have been mediated through a primary actionof BDNF on astroglia or other nonneuronal cells. However, BDNF was foundto be equally effective in the induction of CAT activity in the presenceof a confluent monolayer of predominantly astroglial cells or incultures greatly depleted of glial cells by treatment with the mitoticinhibitor, cytosine arabinoside. An intriguing observation from theseexperiments was that the shape of the dose response curves to BDNF wasdistinctly different in the two cases. In the presence of a glialmonolayer, the response to BDNF was linear with an increasingconcentration of BDNF. In neuron-enriched cultures, the dose response toBDNF was shifted to the left. One possible explanation for these resultsis that the glia themselves may express the BDNF receptor, thus loweringthe effective concentration of the ligand available for the receptorlocalized on neurons. Alternatively, the suppressive effect ofastrocytes could be indirect, unrelated to an effect on ligandconcentration or receptor expression, and mediated for example bygreatly increased degradation of BDNF. Similar observations have beenreported by Hartikka and Hefti (Hartikka, J. and Hefti, F., 1988, J.Neurosci. 8:2967-2985) and Honegger and Lenoir (Honegger, P. and Lenoir,D., 1982, Dev. Brain Res. 3:229-238). It has been demonstrated thatglial cells of different brain regions can greatly influence themorphology of neurons associated with them (Prochiantz et al., 1979,Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 76:5387-5391; Prochiantz et al., 1981,Nature 293:570-572). Thus, septal glia may have instrinsic propertieseither of a membranal or secretory nature which may act to suppress theexpression of the cholinergic phenotype. The regulatory properties ofastrocytes derived from the hippocampus under similar test conditions isnow being investigated.

On the basis of the data presented, it is apparent that BDNF and NGF areboth capable of increasing septal cholinergic neuronal function. It isinteresting to speculate as to the possible physiological relevance oftwo highly homologous neurotrophic factors apparently acting on a singleneuronal population. There has been some suggestion that the actions ofBDNF and NGF may initially overlap during early development ofperipheral neurons, especially on sub-populations of dorsal rootganglion neurons or their precursors, and then later segregate to actindependently on distinct populations (Lindsay et al., 1985, Dev. Biol.112:319-328; Ersberger, U. and Rohrer, H., 1988, Dev. Biol.126:420-432); Barde, Y. A. 1989, Neuron. 2:1525-1534). This has not,however, been definitively established using appropriate markers todefine sub-populations of sensory neurons. Since the present studyfocused on embryonic septal neurons established in culture at a singletime-point in development, E17, it is possible that a similar sort ofsegregative phenomenon may occur at later development stages in theseptum. Thus, there may prove to be interesting temporal and spatialdifferences in the responsiveness of septal cholinergic neurons to BDNFor NGF.

It will now be interesting to examine the effects of BDNF on basalforebrain cholinergic neurons in vivo, where there is now evidence thathippocampal-derived NGF may be involved in the normal development andmaintenance of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons in vivo. It will beinteresting to establish whether or not BDNF has a similar role in vivo.The recent finding that BDNF mRNA is particularly abundant in thehippocampus supports such a role.

17. EXAMPLE: ENZYMATIC CONVERSION OF PREPRO BDNF TO ACTIVE, MATURE BDNF17.1. Materials and Methods

Commercially available endoproteinase Arg-C (purified from mousesubmaxillary glands) was used to enzymatically convert the largeprecursor form of hBDNF (preproBDNF) to the biologically active matureprotein. This enzymatic cleavage was accomplished in an in vitroreaction. The substrate in the enzymatic reaction was preprohBDNFsynthesized in CHO-DG44 cells which was secreted into the cell culturemedia and harvested. The culture media consisted of Ham's F12 media(nucleoside-free) with 1% fetal bovine serum (FBS) and 1% each ofpenicillin and streptomycin. The reaction was carried out at 37° C. for5 minutes using 5 units of enzyme and 50 μl of CHO-DG44 cell supernatantcontaining prepro hBDNF. Cleavage of preprohBDNF to mature hBDNF wascomplete under these conditions.

17.2. Results and Discussion

The prepro form of recombinant hBDNF (approximately 31,000 daltons) wascompletely processed to the mature bioactive form of hBDNF(approximately 12,000 daltons) in vitro using endoproteinase Arg-C.Recombinant human brain derived neurotrophic factor has beensuccessfully produced in mammalian cells (CHO-DG44 cells). The hBDNFgene has been stably integrated into the CHO cell genome and the hBDNFgene amplified using a methotrexate amplification strategy. Therecombinant hBDNF was secreted into the medium and found to bebiologically active. Metabolic labeling followed by SDS polyacrylamidegel electrophoresis (15% gel) demonstrates that most of the synthesized[³⁵ S-labeled hBDNF product secreted into the culture medium migrated asthe prepro form with an apparent molecular weight of 31,000 (FIG. 39,lane 2). [³⁵ S]-labeled proteins secreted from wild type CHO-DG44 cellsare shown in FIG. 29, lane 1. In order to generate predominately themature form of hBDNF (apparent molecular weight of 12,000), we designedan in vitro strategy to enzymatically cleave the prepro form of hBDNF.

Trypsin digestion products are shown in FIG. 29, lanes 3-6. Bovinepancreas trypsin (purchased from Worthington; chymotrypsin-free) wasdissolved in phosphate buffered saline and added to 50 ul aliquots of[³⁵ S]-labeled CHO cell hBDNF. Trypsin concentrations used were 25, 50,75, and 100 ug/ml. The [³⁵ S]-labeled reaction products are shown inlanes 3-6, respectively. The enzymatic cleavage reaction was carried outat 37° C. for 5 minutes. A gradual decrease in the labeling intensity ofthe 31,000 prepro-hBDNF was observed with a corresponding increase in an18,500 molecular weight product. The mature form of hBDNF (molecularweight 12 000) was not generated under these conditions. FIG. 29, lane 7shows the [³⁵ ]-labeled reaction products owing enzymatic digestion ofCHO cell hBDNF with endoproteinase Arg-C isolated from mousesubmaxillary gland from Boehringer reconstituted from a lyophilizedpreparation with 100 ul of Milli-Q water and stored at -20° C. For theenzymatic digestion of CHO cell hBDNF, we used 5 units (5 ul) of enzymeand 50 ul of ³⁵ S-labeled protein from CHO cell supernatants containingpreprohBDNF (FIG. 29, lane 2). As seen in FIG. 29, lane 7, 5 units ofendoproteinase Arg-C was able to convert the prepro form of hBDNF(31,000 molecular weight) to the mature form of hBDNF (12,000 molecularweight) in 5 minutes at 37° C.

Enzymatic treatment with endoproteinase Arg-C of the supernatants of CHOcells expressing hBDNF increased the level of BDNF biological activityrelative to unprocessed supernatants. Supernatants from CHO-DG44 cellsexpressing hBDNF were treated for 5 minutes with endoproteinase Arg-C at37° C. 200 ul of supernatant were treated with 20 units of enzyme andboth the treated and untreated hBDNF were assayed for biologicalactivity using explants of E8 chick dorsal root ganglia. Twenty-fourhours after the addition of hBDNF, neurite outgrowth was qualitativelyscored. We consistently observed that the endoproteinase-treated BDNFsamples were significantly more bioactive than the control (untreated)hBDNF samples. A concentration curve of this data is plotted in FIG. 30.

In conclusion, purified endoproteinase Arg-C can be used in an in vitroenzymatic reaction to generate the mature bioactive form of recombinanthuman brain derived neurotrophic factor from incompletely processedprecursor molecules (i.e., pro BDNF). This novel method will allow foran efficient large scale production of bioactive human BDNF frommammalian cell culture systems. For example, it may be possible toimmobilize the endoproteinase Arg-C to a solid matrix and establish anefficient column chromatography step.

18. EXAMPLE: BRAIN-DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR PROMOTES SURVIVAL ANDMATURATION OF DOPAMINERGIC NEURONS OF THE RAT VENTRAL MESENCEPHALON18.1. Materials and Methods 18.1.1. Cell Cultures

Dissociated cultures were established by enzymatic and mechanicaldissociation of ventral mesencephalon tissue dissected from E14-E15 ratembryos. Typically, pooled tissue from two or three litters of ratembryos from time-mated Sprague-Dawley rats were trypsinized (0.125%;Worthington) in F12 medium (Gibco) for 20 minutes at 37° C. Afterwashing in growth medium (MEM containing the following supplements:glutamine, 2 mM, glucose, 6 mg/ml, penicillen G, 0.5 U/ml, streptomycon5 μg/ml, fetal calf serum, 7.5%) the tissue was briefly centrifuged atlow speed for 5 minutes and the pellet was dissociated by trituration.After allowing 1-2 minutes for nondispersed cell clumps to settle, thesingle cell suspension was seeded onto 35 mm dishes (precoated withpolyornithine and laminin; Lindsay et al., 1985, Dev. Biol. 112:319)containing growth medium to give a density of 5×10⁴ cells per cm². Afteran overnight incubation in growth medium to allow cell attachment, cellswere cultured in the presence or absence of BDNF in a serum-free,defined medium as described by Bottenstein and Sato (Bottenstein andSato, 1979, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 76:514), except that insulin wasincluded at 20 ng/ml. To visualize dopaminergic cells, cultures werefixed with 4% paraformaldehyde, washed extensively, permeabilized with0.02% Saponin in Sorensen's buffer with 1.5% horse serum and stainedwith a mouse monoclonal antibody to rat TH (Boehringer-Mannheim).Primary antibody binding was visualized using a Vectastain ABC kit(Vector Labs).

18.1.2. Measurement of Dopamine Uptake

Cultures were prepared as described in 18.1.1., supra, and were grownfor the number of days indicated, either in the presence or absence ofporcine BDNF, 50 ng/ml. Dopamine uptake was determined in triplicatecultures at the time points indicated. Cells were prewashed inuptake-buffer of the folowing composition: 136.8 mM NaCl, 2.7 mM KCI, 8mM Na₂ HPO₄ 7H₂ O, 1.5 mM KH₂ PO₄, 5 mM glucose, 1 mM CaCl₂, 1 mM MgSO₄,0.1 mM ascorbate and 0.1 mM pargyline, pH 7.4. Those samples to bemeasured for nonneuronal ³ H-dopamine uptake had benztropine included(BZT) in the uptake buffer, at a concentration of 5 μM. After washing,the cells were prewarmed to 37° C. for five minutes in fresh uptakebuffer at which point ³ H-dopamine (NEN, 40 Ci/mmol) was added to afinal concentration of 50 nM. The cultures were incubated at 37° C. for15 minutes, the uptake solution was removed and the cells were placed onice, and washed four times with ice-cold uptake buffer. Cells wereharvested by addition of 0.5N NaOH to the culture dishes, and the NaOHextract was counted in a Beckman scintillation counter with 15 mlsUltima Gold scintillation fluid (Packard Instruments). Specific neuronaldopamine uptake is defined as that uptake (cpm) observed in the absenceof BZT less that observed in the presence of BZT. Routinely, between70-90% of the total uptake was inhibitable by BZT. In replicate culturesat each time point the number of TH+ neurons was determined byimmunocytochemical staining and the results shown represent uptakenormalized on a per TH+ basis.

18.1.3. Transient Expression of BDNF

Cos M5 cells were transfected with the vector CDM8 containing thesequence encoding human BNDF. At 72 hours post transfection, 50ml ofculture supernatant was collected and dialyzed against 6M urea. Thedialyzed supernatant was then combined with ampholines (pH 3.5-10,BioRad) for 41/2 hours. Fractions were collected, dialyzed against 25 mMNaPO₄ buffer pH 7.6 using dialysis tubing which had been prewashed inBSA (0.5 mg/ml) to prevent nonspecific absorbtion. Fractions wereassayed for neurite outgrowth promoting activity in cultures of E8 chickdorsal root ganglion explants. Active fractions were pooled. Analysis ofthe active pool by SDS PAGE and subsequent silver staining (Wray et al.,1981, Anal. Biochem. 118:197) on an 8-18% gel revealed a faint band at68 kD corresponding to BSA, and a single band at approximately 12 kD,corresponding to that observed previously for porcine BDNF (Barde etal., 1982, EMBO J. 1:549) (data not shown). In comparative bioassayscarried out on chick dorsal root, nodose and sympathetic ganglionexplants the specific activity and neuronal specificity of purifiedrecombinant human BDNF was similar to that of purified porcine BDNF.

18.1.4. Production of hBDNF from Transfected CHO Cells

CHO-DG44 cells were a kind gift of Dr. L. Chasin (Columbia University,N.Y.). These cells are deficient in dihydrofolate reductase (dhfr-)(Urlaub and Chasin, 1980, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 77:4216-4220).CHO-DG44 cells were maintained in Ham's F12 medium with 10% fetal bovineserum, 1% penicillin and streptomycin, and 2 mM glutamine. Cells werepassaged twice a week and were routinely checked for mycoplasmacontamination. All plasmid DNA was purified by double cesium chloridebanding prior to transfection. The human brain-derived neurotrophicfactor gene was subcloned into the mammalian expression vector pCDM8 togenerate pC8hB as described previously (Maisonpierre et dihydrofolatereductase gene, p410, was kindly provided by Dr. L. Chasin. These twogene constructs were cotransfected into CHO-DG44 cells byelectroporation (reviewed in Shigekawa and Dower, 1988, BioTechniques6:742-751). Approximately 1×10⁶ cells were transfected with 20 ug ofpC8hB and 0.2 ug of p410. 48 hours after transfection, the CHO-DG44cells were split into selection media consisting of nucleoside-freeHam's F12 (without thymidine and hypoxanthine; -HT) plus 10% dialyzedfetal bovine serum and 1% penicillin and streptomycin. Individualcolonies were isolated approximately 10 days after placing the cells innucleoside-free selection medium. Individually selected coloniesresistant to growth in necleoside-free Ham's F12 (-HT) medium weretreated with either 0.02, 0.05, or 0.1 uM methotrexate (MTX) to inducegene amplification (Alt et al., 1978, J. Biol. Chem. 253:1357-1370).MTX-resistant colonies were cultured as pools and were further amplifiedwith either 1.5, 2.0, or 2.5 uM MTX. A single colony resistant to 2.5 uMMTX was isolated and selected for scale-up culture and production ofhBDNF. Southern blotting analysis of this clone (DGZ1000-B-3-2.5)indicated an amplification of the BDNF gene relative to wild-typeCHO-DG44 cells of approximately 50-fold. Bioassays with explants ofembryonic (E8) chick dorsal root ganglia (DRG) were used to estimatethat this clone was producing approximately 9.5 ug of hBDNF/ml (notshown). Recombinant hBDNF was produced on a large scale by culturingDGZ1000-B-3-2.5 cells in 480 cm² roller bottles. Media was harvestedapproximately four days after these cells reached confluence.Purification of hBDNF from culture supernatant was performed as abovefor COS supernatant.

18.2 Results and Discussion

Characterization of molecular signals which control neuronal survivaland specificity of target innervation is of fundamental interest, notonly because it will help to elucidate how the nervous system is shapedbut also because it is likely to lead to a better understanding of themechanisms involved in maintenance and repair of mature neurons inappropriate synaptic configurations. While it is widely recognized thatthe survival and maintenance of neurons depend upon specific, targetcell-derived neurotrophic factors (Levi-Montalcini and Angeletti, 1968,Physiol. Rev. 48:534; Thoenen and Barde, 1980, Physiol. Rev., 60:1284;Purves, D., 1988, in Body and Brain, Harvard University Press,Cambridge, Mass.; Barde, Y. A , 1989, Neuron, 2:1525; Lindsay, R. M.1988, The Making of the Nervous System, Oxford University Press, Oxford,p. 148) very few such molecules have been fully characterized. To date,only two neurotrophic factors, nerve growth factor (NGF) andbrain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), have been shown to selectivelysupport the survival of distinct neuronal populations in vivo(Levi-Montalcini and Angeletti, 1968, Physiol. Rev. 48:534; Barde, Y.A., 1989, Neuron, 2:1525; Leibrock et al., 1989, Nature 341:149).

Neuronal cell culture has been Widely used to establish bioassays forthe identification of neurotrophic activity in cell and tissue extracts(Levi-Montalcini and Angeletti, 1968, Physiol. Rev. 48:534; Thoenen andBarde, 1980, Physiol. Rev., 60:1284; Lindsay, R. M. 1988, The Making ofthe Nervous System, Oxford University Press, Oxford, p. 148; Varon andAdler, 1981, Adv. Cell. Neurobiol., 2:118) and to determine the neuronalspecificity(ies) of purified neurotrophic factors (Ebendal, T., 1989, inNerve Growth Factors, John Wiley, London, p. 81; Barbin et al., 1984, J.Neurochem. 43:1468; Barde et al., 1982, EMBO J. 1:549; Davies et al.,1986, J. Neurosci. 6:1897; Lindsay et al., 1985, Dev. Biol. 112:319). Todate, most studies have concentrated on the neurotrophic requirements ofdifferent classes of neurons of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Theavailability of NGF has established it as by far the most wellcharacterized neurotrophic factor: NGF has been shown both in vitro andin vivo to be essential for the survival and maintenance of neuronalsubpopulations of both the PNS and CNS (Levi-Montalcini and Angeletti,1968, Physiol. Rev. 48:534; Thoenen and Barde, 1980, Physiol. Rev.,60:1284; Whittemore and Seiger, 1987, Brain Res. Rev. 12:439; Snider andJohnson, 1989, Ann. Neurol. 26:489; Hefti et al., 1989, Neurobiology ofAging 10:515; Martinez et al., 1987, Brain Res. 412:295; Takei et al.,1988, J. Neurochem. 51:1118; Hartikka and Hefti, 1988, J. Neurosci.8:2967). Hampering the identification of neurotrophic growth factors forspecific CNS neurons has been the limited availability of purifiedpreparations of neurtrophic factors other than NGF, and the difficultyin preparing homogeneous preparations of specific neuronal populations.Two recent observations prompted us to study the effects of BDNF on thesurvival of CNS (nigral) dopaminergic neurons. Firstly, it is now clearthat the BDNF gene is expressed in the CNS, and at comparably or higherlevels than the NGF gene (Leibrock et al., 1989, Nature 341:149).Secondly, it has been reported that a protein partially purified frombovine striatum (a target of nigral dopaminergic neurons), withcharacteristics apparently similar to those of BDNF, can increase the invitro survival of dopaminergic neurons prepared from the mesencephalon(Dal Toso et al., 1988, J. Neurosci 8:733).

FIG. 31A illustrates the typical appearance of dissociated ventralmesencephalic cells after nine days in culture. Virtually all of thecells had phase bright perikarya and long processes. Few cells offibroblast morphology were evident and no astroglial cells were detectedwhen cultures were stained with antibodies for the astroglial marker,glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP; Bignami et al., 1972 Brain Res.43:429). To visualize dopaminergic neurons in these culture,immunocytochemical staining was carried out with monoclonal antibodiesto TH. As expected the number of TH+ neurons was small (arrows, FIGS.31B and 31C) and varied, depending on the time in culture, between0.1-0.5% of the cells plated. Various neuronal morphologies, were notedamong the TH+ cells, as shown in FIGS. 32A through 32C.

In all cultures, there was invariably a gradual decline in the number ofTH+ cells (FIGS. 33A and 34) after the first 3-4 days in vitro. By 8days in culture, for example, the number of TH+ cells in controlcultures was only 25% of that found in similar cultures at day 2 (FIG.34). However, in cultures treated with BDNF, the loss of TH+ cells wasgreatly reduced when compared to controls. At all times examined after 8days in vitro the number of TH+ cells in BDNF treated cultures wasgreater than in the untreated controls, e.g. 1..8-fold higher after asingle addition of BDNF (FIG. 33A) and 5-fold higher after multipleadditions (FIG. 34). Even when added only once to cultures maintainedfor 8 days, the effect of BDNF was found to be dose dependent (FIG.33B). In agreement with previous reports (Dal Toso et al., 1988, J.Neurosci 8:733; Knusel et al. 1990, J. Neuroscii. 10:558), NGF (50ng/ml) had no effect on the number of TH+cells (FIG. 33C).

As a further way of examining the effect of BDNF on the dopaminergicneurons in these cultures, the capacity of the TH+ cells to take up ³H-dopamine was studied. As shown in Table X, dopamine uptake capacity(normalized per TH+ neuron) increased markedly over the first 8 days inculture but dropped thereafter. It was found, however, that BDNF did notchange the capacity of TH+ cells to take up dopamine, as the same timecourse and similar values were obtained in the presence or absence ofBDNF (Table X). We hypothesized from this result that BDNF probably actsdirectly to promote survival of dopaminergic neurons in mesencephaliccultures as opposed to inducing the expression of a dopaminergicphenotype in neurons which do not necessarily require BDNF for survival.To examine this further, we carried out experiments in which the numberof TH+ neurons was determined in culture in which BDNF addition wasinitially delayed for several days. We found that when BDNF addition wasdelayed until day 5, and the number of TH+ cells was subsequentlydetermined at 6, 8 or 10 days, fewer dopaminergic cells were seen inthese cultures when compared to parallel cultures in which BDNF had beenpresent from day 2 onwards (FIG. 35). Although delayed addition of BDNFclearly increased the number of TH+ neurons compared to controls, whenexamined even at equivalent time points the effect of delayed additionwas never found to rescue as many TH+ neurons as addition of BDNF on day2.

Taken together, these results argue against the possibility that BDNFacts only to increase TH-gene expression within a fixed number of cells,and suggest that BDNF exerts its effect by increasing survival ofdopaminergic neurons that are otherwise lost when this neurotrophicfactor is not added to cultures at an early stage.

Several reports have documented the stimulation of maturation andenhancement of survival in vitro of mesencephalic dopaminergic neuronsby either target-derived extracts or various growth factors (Dal Toso etal., 1988, J. Neurosci. 8:733; Knusel et al. 1990, J. Neurosci. 10:558;Prochiantz et al., 1979, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 76:5387; DiPorzio etal., 1980, Nature 288:370; Prochiantz et al., 1981, Nature 293:570;Denis-Donini et al., 1983, J. Neurosci. 3:2292). So far, however, therehas been no report of a fully purified molecule directly and selectivelysupporting the survival of TH+ neurons in the complete absence of glialcells or enhanced cell division (as observed, for example, with IGF-1 orFGF, Dal Toso et al., 1988, J. Neurosci 8:733). In agreement withprevious reports using early embryonic mouse tissue (Dal Toso et al.,1988, J. Neurosci 8:733), E14 rat ventral mesencephalic cells culturedin serum-free, defined medium were found to be essentially free ofastrocytes or fibroblasts. The relatively low cell plating density of50,000 cells/cm² used in this study diminished the effects of anypossible endogenous neurotrophic activity, and allowed for more accuratecell counting. In view of the results presented here, it appears thatthe neurotrophic factor, partially purified from bovine striatum by DelToso et al. (Dal Toso et al., 1988, J. Neurosci 8:733), is likely to beBDNF. This suggests that BDNF is produced in the striatum and taken upby the terminals of the dopaminergic neurons projecting from thesubstantia nigra. As yet, however, mRNA for BNDF (or indeed mRNA forother members of the neurotrophin family) has not been found to beabundant in striatal tissue by Northern blot analyses.

It is clear that BDNF addition, even in the case of multiple additions,does not result in complete survival of nigral dopaminergic neuronsduring the culture periods analyzed. This phenomenon has already beenobserved under experimental conditions very similar to ours by Dal Tosoet al. (Dal Toso et al., 1988, J. Neurosci 8:733) who showed that thisloss might be related to the cell density used; at higher cell densities(4 times that used here) a larger number of catecholamine-fluorescentcells could be seen and the spontaneous disappearance of these cells wasdecreased. Possibly, cell-cell contact is needed for long term survivalof these cells.

Further studies, particularly those directed at examining the effects ofBDNF on the development and maintenance of dopaminergic neurons of theventral mesencephalon in vivo, will be necessary to determine thephysiological relevance of the effects of BDNF described here. In viewof the specific loss of nigral dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson'sdisease, it is particularly desirable to find a neurotrophic factorwhich selectively affects these cells. Thus, the present finding thatBDNF supports the survival of these neurons, cells which are refractoryto NGF, provides rationale for animal experiments which will determinewhether BDNF can protect dopaminergic neurons from the neurotoxiceffects of either 6-hydroxydopamine or MPTP(1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine). Such studies may lead toa novel therapeutic approach for Parkinsonism.

                  TABLE X                                                         ______________________________________                                        DOPAMINE UPTAKE IN VENTRAL MESENCEPHALIC                                      CULTURES IS NOT INCREASED DIRECTLY BY BDNF                                               .sup.3 H-Dopamine Uptake                                                      (cpm/TH /(+) neuron/15 minutes)                                    Days In Culture                                                                            Control    BDNF-Treated                                          ______________________________________                                        3            0.51 ± 0.1                                                                            0.95 ± 0.2                                         6            4.5 ± 0.3                                                                             3.1 ± 0.6                                          8            18.5 ± 5.3                                                                            27.3 ± 1.2                                         10           3.37 ± 0.24                                                                           2.21 ± 0.18                                        ______________________________________                                    

19. EXAMPLE: BDNF PRODUCES A DOSE-DEPENDENT INHIBITION OFGAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID UPTAKE 19.1. Materials and Methods 19.1.1.Hippocampal Cell Cultures

Hippocampi were dissected from E18-19 rat embryos of Sprague-Dawleyrats, and collected in F10 medium. The tissues were minced, rinsed twicewith F10 medium (Gibco) and trypsinized with 0.25% trypsin (Gibco) for20 minutes at 37° C. Trypsin was inactivated by the addition of aserum-containing medium composed of minimum essential medium (MEM)supplemented with fetal calf serum (FCS, 10%), glutamine (2 mM),pencillin (25 U/ml) and streptomycin (25 ug/ml). Dissociated cellsobtained by gentle trituration were collected and centrifuged at lowspeed (500 rpm) for 30 seconds. The centrifugation was repeated twice,and the cell pellets were then resuspended in serum-containing medium.The cells were then plated onto 6 mm wells or 35 mm dishes that werecoated with polyornithine (10 ug/ml) and laminin (10 ug/ml). In most ofthe experiments, the cells were plated at a low density of approximately71,000 cells/cm2. Five to six hours following the plating of cells,medium was changed to a serum-free medium containing 1% N3 andpenicillin-streptomycin (25 units/ml and 25 ug/ml, respectively), atwhich time BDNF was added. Medium was changed every three to four days,with re-addition of the factor.

19.1.2. Measurement of High Affinity Uptake for Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid(GABA)

High-affinity GABA uptake was measured using a modified procedure ofTomozawa and Appel (1986, Brain Res. 399:111-124). Cells were washed inthe GABA uptake buffer containing 140 mM NaCl, 2.6 mM KCl, 1 mM KH₂ PO₄1 mM Na₂ HPO₄, 6 mg/ml glucose, 1 mM MgCl₂, 1 mM CaCl₂, 0.1% BSA.Following washing, cells were incubated with the GABA uptake buffer for5 minutes at 37° C. ³ H-GABA (NEN, NET-191X, 111.4 Ci/mmol) was thenadded at a final concentration of 12 nM, and incubation was carried outat 37° C. for 10 minutes. Cells were then kept on ice, and washed threetimes with the uptake buffer. Cells were incubated with 0.14N NaOH for 2hours at room temperature, and ³ H-GABA in the extract was counted. ³H-GABA uptake was found to be linear for up to at least 30 minutes.Uptake of GABA into non-neuronal cells was inhibited by the addition of2 mM B-alanine, whereas uptake specific for neurons is verified byinhibition with nipecotic acid at 1 mM.

19.2. Results and Discussion

We have recently detected abundant levels of message for BDNF inneuron-enriched hippocampal cultures, but not in hippocampal astrocytes.These data strongly suggest that BDNF is localized to hippocampalneurons. In order to examine the effect of BDNF on hippocampal neuronsin culture, cells were treated with various concentrations of BDNF(rotorphor-purified from COS supernatants). At the end of the 8 daystreatment period, high affinity GABA uptake into neurons was measured.As shown in FIG. 36, BDNF produced a dose-dependent inhibition of GABAuptake. Thus, BDNF may affect the survival and/or phenotypic expressionof GABAergic neurons. BDNF did not have any effect onglutamate-containing neurons (as assessed by glutamate-uptakemeasurements), nor on the levels of neurofilament protein. Thus, theeffect of BDNF on hippocampal cultures appears to be specific forGabaergic neurons.

20. EXAMPLE: BDNF CONFERS A PROTECTIVE EFFECT AGAINST TOXIC EFFECTS OFMPP+ 20.1. Materials and Methods 20.1.1. Measurement of the Effects ofNeurotrophic Factors of MPP+-Treated SH-SY5Y Cells 20.2. Results andDiscussion

When BDNF, NGF, CNTF, NT-3, bFGF, and EGF were separately tested for theability to protect SH-SY5Y cells for 1-methyl-4-phenyl pyridinium (MPP+)toxicity, as measured by trypan blue exclusion assay, only BDNF and NGFappeared to exhibit significant protective activity against MPP+toxicity (Tables XI and XII).

                  TABLE XI                                                        ______________________________________                                        BDNF AND NGF PROTECTION OF SH-SY5Y                                            CELLS FROM MPP+ TOXICITY                                                      Results:          Number of Viable Cells                                      Treatment:        (% Viable)                                                  ______________________________________                                        COS-Mock transfected (1:5)                                                                      0.4 × 10.sup.4 (5%)                                   BDNF-COS (1:5)    1.2 × 10.sup.5 (67%)                                  NGF-COS (1:5)     1.7 × 10.sup.5 (84%)                                  CNTF              0.6 × 10.sup.4 (14%)                                  NT-3              0.7 × 10.sup.4 (20%)                                  bFGF              0.4 × 10.sup.4 (11%)                                  EGF               0.1 × 10.sup.4 (3%)                                   ______________________________________                                    

SH-SY5Y cells were seeded into 24 well plates at a density of 1×10⁵cells per well. Twenty four hours after seeding, the cells were treatedwith neurotrophic factors. Twenty four hours after neurotrophic factortreatment, the cells were treated with MPP+ (10 uM). Forty-eight hoursafter MPP+addition, viable cells were quantitated by the trypan blueexclusion assay. Neurotrophic factors utilized were mNGF-COS (1:5dilution), hBDNF-COS (1:5 dilution), purified rCNTF from E. coli (25ng/ml), purified bovine brain bFGF (25 ng/ml), rNT3-COS (1:5 dilution),and purified hEGF (25 ng/ml).

20.1.2. Measurement of the Effects of Neurotrophic Factors onMPP+-Treated Ventral Mesencephalic Cultures

Cultures of dissociated ventral mesencephalic neurons were establishedfrom E14 rat embryos according to established protocols (See Section 18,supra). Forty eight hours after these cultures were established, theywere treated with the appropriate neurotrophic agents as indicated.Neurotrophic factors included hBDNF (rotophor-purified from CHO cells,≦50 ng/ml), purified mNGF (50 ng/ml), rNT-3 (COS supernatants at 1:50dilution), purified bovine brain bFGF (10 ng/ml), and purified rCNTF (25ng/ml) from E. coli). Twenty four hours after neurotrophic factoraddition, these cultures were treated with MPP+(1 uM). Forty eight hoursafter MPP+ treatment, TH positive neurons were identified byimmunohistochemistry and quantitated. Data represent the mean of threeindependent experiments done with triplicate samples per experiment. Thenumber of TH-positive neurons following MPP+ treatment is represented bythe cross-hatched bars. Open bars represent the number of TH-positiveneurons without MPP+ treatment.

                  TABLE XII                                                       ______________________________________                                        BDNF AND NGF CONCENTRATION CURVE                                              FOR MPP+ TOXICITY EXPERIMENTS                                                 Treatment        % Viable Cells                                               ______________________________________                                        COS-MOCK     (1:2)   13                                                                    (1:5)    5                                                                    (1:10)   3                                                                    (1:20)   6                                                                    (1:50)   7                                                                    (1:100)  2                                                       COS-BDNF     (1:2)   73                                                                    (1:5)   67                                                                    (1:10)  65                                                                    (1:20)  42                                                                    (1:50)  30                                                                    (1:100) 25                                                       COS-NGF      (1:2)   88                                                                    (1:5)   84                                                                    (1:10)  63                                                                    (1:20)  50                                                                    (1:50)  47                                                                    (1:100) 34                                                       ______________________________________                                    

In ventral mesencephalic cultures, the data indicate that BDNF exhibiteda significant protective effect against MPP+ toxicity, whereas bFGFexerted a lesser effect (FIG. 37). MPP+ treatment was found to reducethe number of tyrosine hydroxylase positive neurons by 85% in controlcultures but only by 40% in cultures pretreated with BDNF prior to MPP+exposure. MPP+ is the presumed active metabolite for the toxin MPTP,which has been observed to induce a Parkinson's disease-like syndrome invivo, which is an accepted model system for Parkinson's disease. Thus,the protective effect of BDNF and NT-3 indicate that these compounds mayprove useful in the treatment of Parkinson's disease or in theprevention of neurologic damage subsequent to toxic exposure.

21. Deposit of Microorganisms

The following recombinant bacteriophage and recombinant plasmid DNA weredeposited on Aug. 30, 1989, with the American Type Culture Collection,12301 Parklawn Drive, Rockville, Md. 20852:

    ______________________________________                                        Accession No.   ATCC                                                          ______________________________________                                        phBDNF-C-1      40648                                                         λhBDNF-G-1                                                                             40649                                                         ______________________________________                                    

The present invention is not to be limited in scope by the specificembodiments described herein. Indeed, various modifications of theinvention in addition to those described herein will become apparent tothose skilled in the art from the foregoing description and accompanyingfigures. Such modifications are intended to fall within the scope of theappended claims.

Various publications are cited herein, the disclosures of which areincorporated by reference in their entireties.

What is claimed is:
 1. An essentially purified, isolated, andnon-denatured protein composition that consists essentially of a solventand a protein having an amino acid sequence as follows:His Ser Asp ProAla Arg Arg Gly Glu Leu Ser Val Cys Asp Ser Ile Ser Glu Trp Val Thr AlaAla Asp Lys Lys Thr Ala Val Asp Met Ser Gly Gly Thr Val Thr Val Leu GluLys Val Pro Val Ser Lys Gly Gln Leu Lys Gln Tyr Phe Tyr Glu Thr Lys CysAsn Pro Met Gly Tyr Thr Lys Glu Gly Cys Arg Gly Ile Asp Lys Arg His TrpAsn Ser Gln Cys Arg Thr Thr Gln Ser Tyr Val Arg Ala Leu Thr Met Asp SerLys Lys Arg Ile Gly Trp Arg Phe Ile Arg Ile Asp Thr Ser Cys Val Cys ThrLeu Thr Ile Lys Arg Gly Arg.
 2. An essentially purified and isolatedprotein having an amino acid sequence as follows:Met Thr Ile Leu Phe LeuThr Met Val Ile Ser Tyr Phe Gly Cys Met Lys Ala Ala Pro Met Lys Glu AlaAsn Ile Arg Gly Gln Gly Gly Leu Ala Tyr Pro Gly Val Arg Thr His Gly ThrLeu Glu Ser Val Asn Gly Pro Lys Ala Gly Ser Arg Gly Leu Thr Ser Leu AlaAsp Thr Phe Glue His Val Ile Glu Glu Leu Leu Asp Glu Asp Gln Lys Val ArgPro Asn Glu Glu Asn Asn Lys Asp Ala Asp Leu Tyr Thr Ser Arg Val Met LeuSer Ser Gln Val Pro Leu Glu Pro Pro Leu Leu Phe Leu Leu Glu Glu Tyr LysAsn Tyr Leu Asp Ala Ala Asn Met Ser Met Arg Val Arg Arg His Ser Asp ProAla Arg Arg Gly Glu Leu Ser Val Cys Asp Ser Ile Ser Glu Trp Val Thr AlaAla Asp Lys Lys Thr Ala Val Asp Met Ser Gly Gly Thr Val Thr Val Leu GluLys Val Pro Val Ser Lys Gly Gln Leu Lys Gln Tyr Phe Tyr Glu Thr Lys CysAsn Pro Met Gly Tyr Thr Lys Glu Gly Cys Arg Gly Ile Asp Lys Arg His TrpAsn Ser Gln Cys Arg Thr Thr Gln Ser Tyr Val Arg Ala Leu Thr Met Asp SerLys Lys Arg Ile Gly Trp Arg Phe Ile Arg Ile Asp Thr Ser Cys Val Cys ThrLeu Thr Ile Lys Arg Gly Arg.
 3. A pharmaceutical composition comprisinga therapeutically effective amount of the essentially purified,isolated, and non-denatured protein composition of claim 1 together witha pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 4. An essentially purified,isolated, and non-denatured protein composition that consistsessentially of a solvent and a protein that comprises an amino acidsequence as follows:His Ser Asp Pro Ala Arg Arg Gly Glu Leu Ser Val CysAsp Ser Ile Ser Glu Trp Val Thr Ala Ala Asp Lys Lys Thr Ala Val Asp MetSer Gly Gly Thr Val Thr Val Leu Glu Lys Val Pro Val Ser Lys Gly Gln LeuLys Gln Tyr Phe Tyr Glu Thr Lys Cys Asn Pro Met Gly Tyr Thr Lys Glu GlyCys Arg Gly Ile Asp Lys Arg His Trp Asn Ser Gln Cys Arg Thr Thr Gln SerTyr Val Arg Ala Leu Thr Met Asp Ser Lys Lys Arg Ile Gly Trp Arg Phe IleArg Ile Asp Thr Ser Cys Val Cys Thr Leu Thr Ile Lys Arg Gly.
 5. Anessentially purified, isolated, and non-denatured protein compositionthat consists essentially of a solvent and a protein having an aminoacid sequence as follows:His Ser Asp Pro Ala Arg Arg Gly Glu Leu Ser ValCys Asp Ser Ile Ser Glu Trp Val Thr Ala Ala Asp lys Lys Thr Ala Val AspMet Ser Gly Gly Thr Val Thr Val Leu Glu Lys Val Pro Val Ser Lys Gly GlnLeu Lys Gln Tyr Phe Tyr Glu Thr Lys Cys Asn Pro Met Gly Tyr Thr Lys GluGly Cys Arg Gly Ile Asp Lys Arg His Trp Asn Ser Gln Cys Arg Thr Thr GlnSer Tyr Val Arg Ala Leu Thr Met Asp Ser Lys Lys Arg Ile Gly Trp Arg PheIle Arg Ile Asp Thr Ser Cys Val Cys Thr Leu Thr Ile Lys Arg Gly.
 6. Anessentially purified, isolated and non-denatured protein compositionthat consists essentially of a solvent and a protein that is produced byand purified from a Chinese Hamster Ovary cell containing a nucleic acidthat encodes a protein having an amino acid sequence as follows:His SerAsp Pro Ala Arg Arg Gly Glu Leu Ser Val Cys Asp Ser Ile Ser Glu Trp ValThr Ala Ala Asp Lys LYs Thr Ala Val Asp Met Ser Gly Gly Thr Val Thr ValLeu Glu Lys Val Pro Val Ser Lys Gly Gln Leu Lys Gln Tyr Phe Tyr Glu ThrLys Cys Asn Pro Met Gly Tyr Thr Lys Glu Gly Cys Arg Gly Ile Asp Lys ArgHis Trp Asn Ser Gln Cys Arg Thr Thr Gln Ser Tyr Val Arg Ala Leu Thr MetAsp Ser Lys Lys Arg Ile Gly Trp Arg Phe Ile Arg Ile Asp Thr Ser Cys ValCys Thr Leu Thr Ile Lys Arg Gly Arg.
 7. A pharmaceutical compositioncomprising a therapeutically effective amount of the essentiallypurified, isolated, and non-denatured protein composition of claim 4,together with a pharmaceutically suitable carrier.
 8. A pharmaceuticalcomposition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of theessentially purified, isolated, and non-denatured protein composition ofclaim 5, together with a pharmaceutically suitable carrier.
 9. Apharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutically effective amountof the essentially purified, isolated, and non-denatured protein ofclaim 6, together with a pharmaceutically suitable carrier.